As confidentially submitted to the Securities and Exchange Commission on June 11, 2025.

This draft registration statement has not been publicly filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission and all information herein remains strictly confidential.

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM S-1

REGISTRATION STATEMENT

UNDER

THE SECURITIES ACT OF 1933

Ethos Technologies Inc.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

90 New Montgomery Street, Suite 1500

San Francisco, CA 94105

(415) 915-0665

(Address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of registrant’s principal executive offices)

Peter Colis

Chief Executive Officer

Ethos Technologies Inc.

90 New Montgomery Street, Suite 1500

San Francisco, CA 94105

(415) 915-0665

(Name, address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of agent for service)

Copies to:

Approximate date of commencement of proposed sale to the public: As soon as practicable after this Registration Statement is declared effective.

If any of the securities being registered on this form are to be offered on a delayed or continuous basis pursuant to Rule 415 under the Securities Act of 1933, check the following box: ☐

If this Form is filed to register additional securities for an offering pursuant to Rule 462(b) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. ☐

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(c) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. ☐

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(d) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act. ☐

The Registrant hereby amends this Registration Statement on such date or dates as may be necessary to delay its effective date until the Registrant shall file a further amendment which specifically states that this Registration Statement shall thereafter become effective in accordance with Section 8(a) of the Securities Act of 1933 or until the Registration Statement shall become effective on such date as the Commission, acting pursuant to said Section 8(a), may determine.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Through and including      , 2025 (the 25th day after the date of this prospectus), all dealers effecting transactions in these securities, whether or not participating in this offering, may be required to deliver a prospectus. This is in addition to a dealer’s obligation to deliver a prospectus when acting as an underwriter and with respect to an unsold allotment or subscription.

Neither we nor any of the underwriters has authorized anyone to provide you with any information or to make any representations other than those contained in this prospectus or in any free writing prospectuses we have prepared. Neither we nor any of the underwriters takes any responsibility for, and can provide no assurance as to the reliability of, any other information that others may give you. We are offering to sell, and seeking offers to buy, shares of our Class A common stock only in jurisdictions where offers and sales are permitted. The information contained in this prospectus is accurate only as of the date of this prospectus, regardless of the time of delivery of this prospectus or of any sale of our Class A common stock. Our business, financial condition, results of operations, and growth prospects may have changed since that date.

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For investors outside the United States: Neither we nor any of the underwriters have done anything that would permit this offering or possession or distribution of this prospectus in any jurisdiction where action for that purpose is required, other than in the United States. Persons outside of the United States who come into possession of this prospectus must inform themselves about, and observe any restrictions relating to, the offering of the shares of our Class A common stock and the distribution of this prospectus outside of the United States.

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EXPLANATORY NOTE

Pursuant to the applicable provisions of the Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act, we are omitting our unaudited consolidated financial statements as of and for the three months ended March 31, 2024 and 2025, because they relate to historical periods that we believe will not be required to be included in the prospectus at the time of the contemplated offering. We intend to amend the registration statement to include all financial information required by Regulation S-X at the date of such amendment before distributing a preliminary prospectus to investors.

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

As used in this prospectus, unless the context indicates or otherwise requires, the following terms have the following meanings:

Activated Policy: An insurance policy that was sold through our platform. Activated policies include insurance policies issued and sold to consumers who come to our platform directly as well as those sourced through third-party channels. The number of activated policies does not include any Wills & Estate Planning products.

Active Carriers: Carriers that issued at least one policy through our platform within the last 12 months and were continuing to offer products through our platform as of December 31, 2024.

Active Selling Agents: Agents who have activated a policy through our platform within the last 12 months.

Agencies: Independent insurance agencies that are not owned or operated by us but use our platform to sell insurance products. These agencies employ, or contract with, agents who engage with consumers and submit applications through our platform.

Agent Payments: Amounts paid by us to agents or agencies in connection with both policy sales and sale referrals made by such agents, or in the case of payments made to agencies, their affiliated agents, on our platform.

Agents: Individuals licensed to sell insurance policies in the relevant jurisdiction, whether captive, independent, or affiliated with agencies, including those who sell insurance and related products through our platform.

Carrier: A licensed insurance company.

Commissions: The compensation paid by a carrier to us for an activated policy. Commissions are based on the annual premium of an activated policy and are typically paid throughout the life of the policy. The majority of a policy’s lifetime commissions are paid in the first year following activation.

Commission Rates: The percentage of the policy premium in each policy year paid to us as commission. Commission rates are contractually defined with carriers and reviewed on an annual basis.

Consumers: Individuals who apply for and purchase insurance and related products on our platform, either directly, or through our third-party channel.

NPS: Net promoter score, or NPS, is a standardized measure of consumer satisfaction and loyalty and can range from a low of negative 100 to a high of positive 100. NPS benchmarks can vary significantly by industry, but a score greater than zero represents a company that has more promoters than detractors. Our NPS is calculated using a third-party platform. We use NPS to assess consumer satisfaction and experience with policies sold through our platform and to evaluate performance across carriers on our platform on average over a given period. Our NPS provided in this prospectus reflects the three months ended March 31, 2025.

Persistency: The term “persistency” refers to how long activated policies remain active throughout their terms. Observed persistency for policies of a particular product type changes over time as activated policies are terminated prior to the end of their terms.

Persistency Estimate: The term persistency estimate refers to a percentage estimating the likelihood that a currently activated policy will remain active throughout the policy’s term. We derive the persistency estimate for a policy using our observed persistency data applicable to that policy as well as relevant industry persistency data. We apply the persistency estimate for an activated policy when recognizing revenue from that policy, and we regularly review, and update as needed, persistency estimates as observed persistency applicable to that policy changes over time.

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Post-Issue Audit: A review process conducted periodically by Ethos after a policy has been activated to validate digital underwriting information. The audits may result in recommendations for policy termination where discrepancies are identified. While we conduct the audit, implementation of any resulting actions, such as policy terminations, is typically carried out by the issuing carriers.

Terminations: Previously activated policies that cease to be active due to either (i) policy lapses, which are primarily driven by the consumer’s failure to pay their premiums or voluntary consumer cancellations, (ii) policy rescissions, which are cancellations by the carrier typically resulting from misrepresentation or non-disclosure of material facts by the consumer discovered during post-issue audits, or (iii) death of the consumer.

Third-Party Channel: Our external distribution network, which is composed of independent insurance agencies, their affiliated licensed agents, independent agents, third-party fintech companies, and other third parties that refer consumers to, or enable the sale of, insurance products through our platform.

Underwriting Costs: The costs incurred throughout the underwriting process for both activated and non-activated policies, including costs associated with obtaining third-party evidences (such as prescription history, credit-based insurance scores and motor vehicle records), and, separately, costs related to post-issue audits.

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RISK FACTORS

An investment in our common stock involves a high degree of risk. You should carefully consider the following risks, together with all of the other information contained in this prospectus, including our consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus, before making a decision to invest in our common stock. Any of the following risks could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, operating results, or prospects and could cause the trading price of our common stock to decline, which could cause you to lose part or all of your investment. Our business, financial condition, operating results, or prospects could also be harmed by risks and uncertainties not currently known to us or that we currently do not believe are material.

Risks Related to Our Business

We have a history of losses, and while we have recently achieved profitability, we may not sustain it in the future.

We have historically incurred net losses since our inception in 2016 and only recently achieved profitability in the year ended December 31, 2023. There is no guarantee that we will maintain profitability as we continue to invest in our business. We expect to make significant investments to further develop and expand our business. In particular, we expect to continue to expend substantial financial and other resources on marketing and advertising as part of our strategy to increase the number of new policies activated on our platform and expand our agency relationships, carrier relationships, and product offerings. We also expect to expend financial and other resources on research and development to further enhance our technology platform and underwriting capabilities. The timing and magnitude of revenue growth from activating new policies may not align with the period in which we incur operating expenses. This timing difference may result in expenses exceeding revenue in certain periods, impacting margins, profitability, and cash flow. As a public company, we will incur significant legal, accounting, and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company. If we fail to increase revenue on the timeline that we expect or in an amount sufficient to offset these costs, we may not be able to sustain profitability. Moreover, if our revenue declines, we may be unable to reduce costs in a timely manner as many of our costs are fixed, at least in the short term. In addition, if we reduce variable costs to respond to losses, such as costs associated with marketing activities, this may negatively impact the number of policies activated, as well as agent sales through our platform.

In addition, following the closing of this offering, the stock-based compensation expense related to our RSUs will result in significant increases in our expenses in future periods, which may negatively impact our ability to maintain profitability. In particular, in the quarter in which this offering is completed, we will recognize approximately $    million of stock-based compensation expense associated with the satisfaction of the liquidity event-based condition for certain outstanding RSUs, for which the service-based conditions have been fully or partially satisfied prior to the closing of this offering, which will also negatively impact our cash flow for that quarter.

While we have demonstrated the ability to reach profitability, we may not maintain it in the future, and we may continue to incur significant losses.

We have a limited history operating our business at its current scale, scope, and complexity, which makes it difficult to plan for future operations and growth initiatives and predict future results.

We have limited experience operating our business at its current scale, scope, and complexity, particularly given the recent growth in our carrier and agency relationships. Our limited history and

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experience operating our current business may negatively impact our ability to accurately predict our future results and plan strategic investments and initiatives to further expand our business and offerings, including to support agencies and carriers with whom we work, certain of which may require changes to our liquidity strategy and cash flow management, as well as to maintain or improve efficiency in our operations and costs. For example, changes in observed persistency from unexpected termination trends have in the past resulted in and could in the future result in similar changes to persistency estimates, leading to in-period adjustments to our revenue as such changes are applied to previously activated policies and impact on revenue recognized for newly activated policies. Several factors have resulted in, and may in the future result in, such fluctuations in our persistency estimates, including when we begin working with new carriers or introduce new products, as we have limited historical data on policy terminations and resulting persistency in such cases to help inform our persistency estimates. Further, as we continue to scale our platform and increase the total number of activated policies at any given time, we may experience larger and more frequent in-period adjustments to revenue in respect of previously activated policies as well as greater variation in persistency estimates for newly activated policies, as a larger number of activated policies contribute to and impact observed persistency as well as persistency estimates. We also have limited experience with the post-issue audit and termination practices with new carriers. Policies and practices relating to carrier implementation of the results of our post-issue audits, and ensuing policy terminations by carriers, can differ across carriers or for the same carrier across periods for various factors that are outside of our control and over which we have limited to no visibility. If these carrier actions following our post-issue audits are delayed for any reason, or if carriers do not implement our recommendations as we expect, we have at times experienced and in the future may experience an outsized amount of policy terminations concentrated in certain periods when such carriers address their backlog of policy audits, impacting persistency and persistency estimates for the relevant periods and resulting in fluctuations in revenue growth. These dynamics have negatively impacted and may in the future negatively impact our ability to accurately predict future revenue and cash flows and may in future periods result in unexpected differences between actual results compared to our forecasts.

We also have limited experience with our third-party channel, which is becoming an increasingly significant portion of our total revenue and growth strategy. In particular, as we expand our agency relationships, we have faced and may continue to face increased pressure to offer higher agent compensation or incentives, which could harm our margins and profitability even if agent engagement on our platform is sustained or grows.

You should consider and evaluate our prospects in light of the risks and uncertainties frequently encountered by growing companies in rapidly evolving markets, in particular, markets that are or could be materially impacted by macroeconomic uncertainty such as the life insurance industry. If our assumptions regarding the risks and uncertainties that we consider in planning and operating our business are incorrect or change, or if we do not address these risks and uncertainties successfully, including due to the lack of historical data from and experience in operating our business at its current scale and scope of offerings, our results of operations could differ materially from our expectations, and our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.

Our business could be harmed if we fail to manage our growth effectively.

While we have experienced rapid growth in recent periods, we may be unable to manage our growth successfully, and our recent growth rates may not be indicative of our future growth. The scalability and extensibility of our platform and our overall growth depends on the functionality of our technology and network infrastructure and its ability to handle increased traffic and demand for bandwidth, particularly as we expand our product offerings and agency relationships. The growth in consumers, agents, and carriers using our platform and the insurance product sales processed through

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our platform have increased the amount of data and requests that we process. Any problems with the transmission of increased data and requests could result in harm to our brand or reputation. Moreover, as our business grows, we will need to devote additional resources to improving our operational infrastructure and continuing to enhance its scalability in order to maintain the performance of our platform.

If we are unable to scale our support and operational processes effectively, the quality of the experience for consumers, agents, and agencies could suffer. This may negatively impact agent engagement and retention as well as our relationships with carriers and agencies, conversion rates, and consumer satisfaction.

As we expand our business, we may also face integration challenges as well as potential unknown liabilities and reputational concerns in connection with third-party agencies or carriers we work with, including challenges, liabilities, and concerns that may impact and cause fluctuations in our financial results. For example, when working with new carriers or new products with existing carriers, our limited historical experience and data may result in more frequent changes to persistency and resulting persistency estimates, which can result in more frequent adjustments to revenue in future periods. We intend to further expand our overall business but our revenue may not continue to grow. As part of that expansion, we expect to grow our team across various functions, which will increase our costs and the complexity of our operations and place additional demands on our management, systems, and infrastructure. If we are unable to manage operational and integration challenges, or suffer unknown liabilities and reputational damage, our business may be adversely affected.

As we grow, we will be required to continue to improve our financial controls and procedures, and we may not be able to do so effectively. For example risk of compliance failures may increase if our internal controls and systems do not keep pace with evolving regulatory requirements or increased transaction volumes. In addition, as the volume of personal and sensitive data we process increases, so does the importance of maintaining robust data privacy and security protections. We have been the subject of, and may in the future be exposed to, regulatory investigations and actions, which may result in reputational harm and a loss of trust among our consumers and counterparties.

Revenue we earn on the sale of insurance products is based on premiums set by carriers, and any meaningful change in these premiums, or any decrease in commission rates that we negotiate with our carriers based on such premiums, or actions by carriers seeking repayment of commissions, could adversely impact our revenue.

We derive revenue from commissions on the sale of insurance products that are paid by the carriers from whom our consumers purchase insurance. We negotiate commission rates with our carriers, which are a percentage of premiums that the carriers charge our consumers. Premiums vary by insurance product provided by carriers, and we do not set the insurance premiums on which our commissions are based. Our consumers’ eligibility for insurance products, as determined through our underwriting processes, impacts the selection of products available to consumers, and as a result, the product mix sold on our platform and for which we receive commissions. Average premiums and underwriting criteria may still change significantly in response to shifts in interest rates, mortality trends, other market or regulatory developments and macroeconomic conditions, as well as carrier pricing strategies. In addition, capacity could be reduced by carriers failing or withdrawing from writing certain coverages that we offer our consumers. Commission rates and premiums can change based on prevailing legislative, economic, and competitive factors that affect carriers. These factors, which are not within our control, include the capacity of carriers to place new business, underwriting and non-underwriting profits of carriers, consumer demand for insurance products, the availability of comparable products from other carriers at a lower cost, and the availability of alternative insurance

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products to consumers. Because we cannot predict or control these factors, our revenue, margins, and profitability may be volatile. These changes could reduce the volume of policies sold through our platform or our third-party channel and impact our ability to generate revenue.

As carriers continue to refine their distribution strategies, they may seek to further minimize their expenses by reducing the commission rates payable to insurance agents, brokers, or platforms like ours. The reduction of these commission rates, along with fluctuations in life insurance premiums, may significantly affect our revenue growth, margins, and profitability. Because we do not determine the timing or extent of premium pricing changes, it may be difficult to precisely forecast changes in our revenue. As a result, we may have to adjust our budgets for future operational and capital expenditures and other expenditures to account for unexpected changes in revenue, and any changes in premium rates or reduction in commission rates may adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Under certain of our carrier contracts, upon certain policy terminations, we are obligated to repay to our carriers or their affiliates all or a portion of the commissions received. Larger or more frequent than expected policy terminations result in changes to persistency and our persistency estimates, which may lead to adjustments to revenue in future periods. Reductions in revenue in such circumstances could negatively impact our results of operations and financial condition and decrease predictability and comparability across periods. In particular, when implementation of our post-issue audit results are delayed by carriers, the resulting terminations, if any, and related adjustments to our revenue will also be delayed and may not have been accounted for in our estimates of future performance. This dynamic negatively impacts the comparability of our results of operations across periods and may negatively impact investor perception of our financial performance. Additionally, upon the termination of policies sold through agents, we may not be able to fully or promptly recoup agent payments owed to us from the applicable agency or agent. This could negatively impact our cash flows and financial results and could adversely impact our ability to budget for future expenditures, particularly if we are also obligated to repay carriers’ commissions received upon any such policy terminations.

Our business may be harmed if we lose relationships with carriers, fail to maintain good relationships with carriers, become even more dependent upon a limited number of carriers or fail to develop new carrier relationships.

We enter into contractual producer and third-party administration relationships with carriers that are sometimes unique to Ethos but are generally non-exclusive and terminable on notice by either party for any reason. In many cases, carriers also have the ability to amend the terms of our agreements on short notice. Carriers may be unwilling to allow us to sell their existing or new insurance products or may amend our agreements with them, for a variety of reasons, including for competitive or regulatory reasons or because of a reluctance to distribute their products through our platform. In particular, if we experience greater terminations of policies, including due to broader industry, economic, or mortality trends, our carriers may seek to restructure or renegotiate their contractual terms with us, including reductions in commission rates, or may determine to leave our platform altogether. Any such restructurings, renegotiations, or departures may also harm our reputation, making it more difficult to secure future carrier relationships on favorable terms or at all. Carriers may also cease offering certain products that comprise a higher volume of our historical activated policies for various reasons, including due to such products’ actual or expected future return on investment for such carriers, which would harm our business, growth, and results of operations. Carriers may decide to rely on their own internal distribution channels, choose to exclude us from their most profitable or popular products, or decide not to distribute insurance products in individual markets in certain geographies or altogether. The termination or amendment of our relationship with a carrier could reduce the variety of insurance products we offer, which could negatively impact our revenue growth

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and also our relationships with agencies and engagement of their agents on our platform. Our ability to grow our business could also be harmed if we fail to develop new carrier relationships.

In addition, we have a significant amount of receivables from carriers for policies placed through our platform. If those carriers were to experience liquidity problems or other financial difficulties, we could encounter delays or defaults in payments owed to us, which could have a significant adverse impact on our financial condition and results of operations. The potential for an insurer to cease writing insurance offered through our platform could negatively impact overall capacity in the industry, which in turn could reduce placement of certain lines of insurance and reduced revenue and profitability for us. Questions about a carrier’s perceived stability or financial strength may contribute to such insurer’s strategic decisions to focus on certain lines of insurance to the detriment of others. The failure of a carrier with which we place insurance could result in errors and omissions, or E&O, claims against us by our consumers, and the failure of our carriers could make the E&O insurance we rely upon cost prohibitive or unavailable, which could have a significant adverse impact on our financial condition and results of operations. In addition, if any carrier merges or if one of our large carriers fails or withdraws from offering certain lines of insurance, the insurance industry’s overall risk-taking capital capacity could be negatively affected, which could reduce our ability to place certain lines of insurance and, as a result, reduce our commissions and fees and profitability. Such failures or insurance withdrawals on the part of our carriers could occur for any number of reasons, including large, unexpected payouts resulting from a pandemic, elevated mortality rates, or other public health events. Any of these events could adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

We rely on a limited number of carriers, and if we are unable to maintain these relationships or diversify the carriers with whom we work, our business and results of operations could be harmed.

While we continue to expand our carrier relationships, a significant portion of our policy volume is attributable to a limited number of carriers. For the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2024, our top three carrier relationships represented approximately 97% and 98%, respectively, of our total revenue. As our business and the insurance industry evolve, it may become necessary for us to offer insurance products from a reduced number of carriers or to derive a greater portion of our revenue from a more concentrated number of carriers as our business and the insurance industry evolve. Should our dependence on a smaller number of carriers increase, whether as a result of the termination of carrier relationships, carrier consolidation or otherwise, we may become more vulnerable to adverse changes in our relationships with our carriers, particularly in states where we offer insurance products from a relatively small number of carriers or where a small number of carriers dominate the market. The termination, amendment or consolidation of our relationship with carriers could harm our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

We rely on a limited number of agency counterparties, and if we are unsuccessful in maintaining relationships with these and new agencies, our results of operations will be harmed.

In addition to our DTC channel, we rely on our third-party channel, consisting primarily of contractual relationships with independent agents and agencies, to generate a significant and growing portion of our revenue. Our revenue from sales of policies on our platform through our third-party channel is driven by a limited number of agencies. In each of the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2024, approximately 13% and 26%, respectively, of our revenue was generated through three of our most significant agency relationships. We anticipate that we will continue to derive a significant portion of our revenue from sales of policies on our platform through agents from a limited number of agencies for the foreseeable future, and in some cases, the portion of our revenue attributable to certain

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agencies may increase in the future. We may not be able to maintain or increase revenue associated with such agencies for a variety of reasons, including if the agencies or affiliated agents no longer perceive our platform to be accretive to or cost-effective for activating new policies, or agents determine that alternative platforms, other methods of selling policies or products not offered by us are preferable. Our contractual arrangements with agencies have no minimum term or engagement commitments. As a result, the agencies with whom we work may disengage from or abandon use of our platform or services at any time at their discretion. We have in the past experienced, and may in the future experience, decreases or gaps in agent engagement with our platform, including as directed by agencies, for various reasons unrelated to Ethos or our platform or products.

These agencies facilitate our access to a broader consumer base, including those who prefer purchasing insurance through traditional advisory channels. If we are unable to attract, retain, or maintain productive relationships within this channel, or if agents choose to offer competing products instead of or in addition to ours, our revenue and growth could be adversely affected. Additionally, regulatory changes, shifts in consumer behavior, shifts in demand for particular product offerings, or increased competition from other similar platforms could further impact our ability to sustain these partnerships and maintain our revenue growth.

In recent years, private equity sponsors have acquired numerous independent insurance agencies, including certain of our current agency counterparties. This consolidation may continue or accelerate in the future, resulting in fewer independent agencies and more agencies under common ownership. In addition, while we maintain distinct contractual relationships with agencies, certain agencies are or may in the future be consolidated under common control. As a result, if we fail to maintain a positive relationship with the ultimate control parties for these agencies, we may experience loss of engagement from agents at such agencies or disengagement by such agencies from our platform. This shift towards consolidation could impact our ability to initiate new or maintain existing agency relationships and could also heighten the risks relating to agency and affiliated agent engagement with our platform described above.

We incur marketing and incentive expenses when onboarding a new agency or engaging with agents at an agency with whom we already work. The effectiveness of such marketing and incentive efforts, and as a result, their return on investment, may not materialize or be known for several quarters due to the time it takes for new agents to be fully ramped up on our platform. In addition, our agencies may seek to exert leverage to negotiate for higher compensation, which, if granted, could negatively affect our margins.

Maintaining and growing our agency relationships generally require us to continually improve our platform, which may involve significant technological and design challenges, and agencies have placed and are expected to continue to place considerable pressure on us to improve. Accordingly, we expect to devote a substantial amount of our resources to our agency relationships, which could detract from or delay other strategic initiatives. Moreover, it is possible that agencies with whom we work may develop their own infrastructure that may compete with our services or partner with a competitor’s infrastructure. In addition, while we maintain distinct contractual relationships with agencies, certain agencies are or may in the future be consolidated under common control. As a result, if we fail to maintain a positive relationship with the ultimate control parties for these agencies, we may experience loss of engagement from agents at such agencies or disengagement by such agencies from our platform. If we are unable to retain these key relationships or if agencies reduce their activity on our platform, our revenue would be adversely impacted and our business, operating results, financial condition, and future prospects would be materially and adversely affected.

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Our success depends on individual agent adoption and engagement, and if agents do not engage with or adopt our platform, our results of operations will be harmed.

Our success depends on individual agent engagement. Agent-level adoption of our platform is not guaranteed and may vary significantly across agencies. If agents are slow to adopt our platform, choose to deprioritize it, or lack sufficient support or training, the anticipated benefits of a given agency or agent relationship may not materialize. Agent acceptance of our platform also depends on its perceived quality, effectiveness, and useability compared to alternative selling methods. Moreover, agent behavior can be affected by factors beyond our control, such as changes in agency compensation structures, internal agency incentives, or technical issues that disrupt agent workflows or compensation accuracy, which factors may be influenced or directed by agencies as part of their own competitive strategies. These dynamics have in the past, and may in the future, reduce agents’ platform engagement and impact the volume of policies sold.

Some of the agents that activate policies using our platform, or provide additional services on our platform, may have relationships with or influence over our consumers, and therefore we risk the loss of such consumers if agents choose not to engage with our platform or prioritize our products.

Our business depends in part on third-party data, technology, and infrastructure providers and failure to maintain these relationships or changes in their services could adversely affect our operations, revenue, and growth.

We anticipate that the growth of our business will continue to depend on third-party relationships, including key technology and service providers that support our platform, such as payment processors. We rely on third-party technology and infrastructure providers to support key aspects of our business, including cloud hosting, data processing, application performance, and core platform functionality. Many of these providers operate on a non-exclusive basis and may also support our competitors or offer competing services, which could impact our ability to differentiate or maintain performance. Identifying, negotiating, and documenting relationships with third parties requires significant time and resources as does integrating third-party content and technology into our platform and operations.

We also rely on certain third-party data sources to support policyholder underwriting and decision-making through our platform. These sources include credit-based insurance scores, driving records, prescription data, medical records, and other consumer information provided by unaffiliated vendors, and, in some cases, analysis and interpretation of such data. Access to this data is important to the speed, accuracy, and overall functionality of our platform. If we lose access to any of these data sources, including any analytics thereof, experience disruptions in availability, or encounter changes in pricing, usage terms, or regulatory constraints affecting access to or use of such data (or any analytics thereof), our ability to support underwriting could be impaired. In addition, if these vendors degrade service quality or if these data sources fail to meet evolving technical or compliance standards, it could result in delays or friction in the application process for consumers and agents, and limit the ability of carriers to efficiently evaluate risk. Any of these developments could reduce the effectiveness of our platform, diminish adoption or satisfaction among carriers, agents, and applicants, and adversely affect our business and operating results. In addition, third-party service providers may not perform as expected under our agreements, and we or our carriers may in the future have disagreements or disputes with such providers, while our competitors may be effective in providing incentives to carriers to favor their products or services on competitors’ platforms or to prevent or reduce sales made through our platform. If we lose access to products from a particular carrier, or experience a significant disruption in the supply of products from a current carrier, especially a carrier offering a unique or popular insurance product, our business and operating results could be harmed.

In addition, changes in the availability, cost, permitted use, or quality of certain third-party underwriting data could disrupt our business operations and harm our business, growth, and results of

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operations. For example, if any laws or regulations were to prohibit the use of financial underwriting scores based on concerns of discriminatory impact, we could lose the ability to support rapid underwriting, which would negatively impact our consumer experience, conversion rates, revenue, and operating margins. Similarly, if providers of prescription and medical claims intelligence were to discontinue or limit their data offerings, and we were required to rely on raw data inputs, we would need to rapidly adapt our underwriting processes, which we are not currently equipped to do. Any of these developments could impair the functionality and competitiveness of our platform and negatively affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Our business is subject to risks related to disputes, legal proceedings, and governmental inquiries.

We are subject to litigation, regulatory investigations, and claims arising in the normal course of our business operations. The risks associated with these matters often are difficult to assess or quantify and the existence and magnitude of potential claims often remain unknown for substantial periods of time. While we have insurance coverage for some of these potential claims, others may be subject to certain exclusions under our policy and/or not be otherwise covered by insurance, insurers may dispute coverage, or any ultimate liabilities may exceed our coverage limits.

We may be subject to actions and claims relating to the sale of insurance. Actions and claims may result in the rescission of such sales and consequently, carriers may seek to recoup commissions paid to us, which may lead to legal action against us. The outcome of such actions cannot be predicted, and such claims or actions could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

We are subject to numerous laws and regulations and may be subject to regulatory investigations from time to time. The insurance industry has been subject to a significant level of scrutiny by various regulatory bodies, including state attorneys general and insurance departments, concerning certain practices within the insurance industry. These practices include the marketing and sale of life insurance policies, denials of coverage, the suitability of insurance products and services, the use, handling, and disclosure of consumer information (including personal information), lead generation and data sharing and sales, and the handling of commissions and agent compensation. From time to time, we have received informational requests from governmental authorities and have been and may in the future be subject to investigations and enforcement actions, including lawsuits, injunctions, damages, and criminal and civil penalties related to disclosures of personal information, including certain types of sensitive health information.

These same laws sometimes also provide individuals with private rights of action. Therefore, in addition to regulatory investigations and actions, the insurance industry has been subject to consumer lawsuits, including class actions, brought under insurance and state and federal consumer protection laws.

There have been a number of revisions to existing, or proposals to modify or enact new laws and regulations regarding insurance agents, brokers, and distribution platforms. These actions have imposed or could impose additional obligations on us with respect to products sold on our platform.

We cannot predict the impact that any new laws, rules, or regulations may have on our business and financial results, and we may become subject to governmental inquiries, subpoenas, or lawsuits. Regulators may raise issues during investigations, examinations, or audits that could, if determined adversely, have a material impact on us. The interpretations of regulations by regulators may change and statutes may be enacted with retroactive impact. We could also be materially adversely affected by any new industry-wide regulations or practices that may result from these proceedings.

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Our involvement in investigations and lawsuits have caused and may in the future cause us to incur additional legal and other costs, including fines and damages, some of which may be material in amount. Regardless of final costs, these matters could have a material adverse effect on us by exposing us to negative publicity, reputational damage, harm to consumer relationships, or diversion of personnel and management resources.

Our business strategy depends in part on expanding our third-party channel, which includes independent agencies and the agents who sell insurance products through our platform. Our third-party channel also increases our exposure to regulatory and compliance risks that we do not directly control. These agencies and agents operate independently and are responsible for their own sales practices, data privacy and security, and marketing activities. As the volume of activity through agencies and agents increases, so does the potential for noncompliance with applicable laws by such parties, including state insurance regulations, consumer protection laws, data privacy laws, and anti-fraud statutes. For example, agents with which we have relationships have in the past, and may in the future, terminate policies issued by carriers we have relationships with and replace them with policies issued by carriers we do not contract with, which is a practice that we prohibit. Our ability to monitor and influence their conduct is limited, and if any agency or agent fails to comply with applicable laws or engages in conduct that exposes them to liability, we could face reputational harm as well as other negative consequences, including regulatory scrutiny, government investigations, legal liability, or monetary penalties, even if we were not directly involved in the conduct at issue. Any of these outcomes could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Competition in our industry is intense, and our inability to compete effectively may adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

The business of selling insurance products and services is highly competitive and fragmented, and we expect competition to intensify. We compete for consumers on the basis of reputation, customer service, product offerings, and our ability to innovate and tailor products and services to meet the specific needs of a consumer.

We actively compete with a number of companies, including agencies, brokerages, traditional carrier distribution channels, as well as companies with online and platform offerings similar to ours. Competition may reduce the fees that we can obtain for services provided, which would have an adverse effect on revenue and margins. Many of our competitors have greater financial and marketing resources than we do and may be able to offer products and services that we do not currently offer and may not offer in the future. As insurance carriers and financial services companies expand their digital distribution strategies, we may face increased competition from larger, well-capitalized entities offering a broader range of products directly to consumers. In addition, a number of carriers are engaged in the direct sale of insurance, primarily to individuals, and do not pay commissions to brokers or other market intermediaries. Furthermore, we compete with various other companies that provide risk-related services or alternatives to traditional insurance services, including other competing start-up companies, which are focused on using technology and innovation, including artificial intelligence, machine learning, and similar tools and technologies, or collectively, AI, digital platforms, data analytics, robotics and blockchain, to simplify and improve the customer experience, increase efficiencies, alter business models, and effect other potentially disruptive changes in the industries in which we operate. We also expect new entrants to offer competitive services and carriers may also seek to build their own solutions, including using advanced tools such as AI, and particularly in markets where development costs are lower. If we cannot compete successfully against current and future competitors, our business, results of operations, and financial condition could be negatively impacted.

In addition, in recent years, private equity sponsors have invested tens of billions of dollars into the insurance sector, transforming existing players and creating new ones to compete with large

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brokers. These new competitors, alliances among competitors or mergers of competitors could emerge and gain significant market share, and some of our competitors may have or may develop a lower cost structure, adopt more aggressive pricing policies, or provide services that gain greater market acceptance than the services that we offer or develop. Competitors may be able to respond to the need for technological changes and innovate faster, or price their services more aggressively. They may also compete for skilled professionals, finance acquisitions, fund internal growth and compete for market share more effectively than we do. To respond to increased competition and pricing pressure, we may have to lower the cost of our services or decrease the level of service provided to consumers, which could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Similarly, any increase in competition due to new legislative or industry developments could adversely affect us. These developments include:

New competition as a result of these or other competitive or industry developments could cause the demand for our products and services to decrease, which could in turn adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Cyber attacks, data breaches, security incidents, systems failures, and resulting interruptions in the availability of our websites, mobile applications, platform, or services could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

It is critical to our success that consumers, agents, and carriers be able to access our platform at all times. Our systems, or those of third parties upon which we rely, may experience service interruptions or degradation or other performance problems because of data breaches or data security incidents (for additional information on this risk, see the section titled “Risk Factors—Risks Related to Intellectual Property, Data Privacy, and Security—If our information technology systems or those of third parties with whom we work or our data, are or were compromised, we could experience adverse consequences resulting from such compromise, including regulatory investigations or actions, litigation, fines and penalties, disruptions of our business operations, reputational harm, loss of revenue or profits, loss of consumers or sales, and other adverse consequences”), infrastructure changes, human error, earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, fires, other natural disasters, power losses, disruptions in telecommunications services, fraud, military or political conflicts, terrorist attacks, or other attempts to infiltrate or harm our systems or platform. It has become increasingly difficult and expensive to maintain and improve the performance of our systems and the availability of our platform, especially during peak usage times, as our operations grow and the usage of our platform increases. Some of our systems are not fully redundant, and our disaster recovery planning may not be sufficient for all eventualities.

We may experience system failures and other events or conditions that interrupt the availability or reduce or affect the speed or functionality of our platform. These events could result in significant losses of revenue and could harm our brand and reputation. Affected users could seek monetary recourse from us for their losses and such claims, even if unsuccessful, would likely be time-

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consuming and costly for us to address. In addition, such breaches have in the past required, and may in the future require notification to governmental agencies, the media, or individuals pursuant to various federal and state privacy and security laws and regulations. Further, we may not be able to identify the cause or causes of these performance problems within an acceptable period of time. A prolonged interruption in the availability or reduction in the availability, speed, or other functionality of our platform could adversely affect our business and reputation and could result in the loss of consumers. Our business interruption insurance may not be sufficient to cover all of our losses that may result from interruptions in our service as a result of system failures, cyber attacks, and similar events.

Our brand awareness and marketing efforts to help grow our business may not be effective.

Promoting awareness of our platform and maintaining and enhancing our reputation is important to our ability to grow our business, and attracting consumers, agents, agencies, and carriers can be costly. We believe that much of the growth in the number of consumers, agents, agencies, and carriers that utilize our platform is attributable to our paid marketing initiatives. Our marketing efforts have included referrals, affiliate programs, partnerships, display advertising, television, billboards, radio, video, social media, email, podcasts, search engine optimization, and keyword search campaigns. Our marketing initiatives may become increasingly expensive, and we may not generate a meaningful return on these initiatives. Even if we increase revenue as a result of our paid marketing efforts, it may not offset the additional marketing expenses we incur. If our marketing efforts to help grow our business are not successful or cost-effective, our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.

The successful promotion of our brand and the market’s awareness of our platform and product offerings will depend on a number of factors, including our marketing efforts, ability to continue to expand our product offerings, and ability to successfully differentiate our platform from competing channels. We expect to invest substantial resources to promote and maintain our brand, but there is no guarantee that our brand development strategies will enhance the recognition of our brand or lead to increased sales. Brand promotion activities may not yield increased revenue, and even if they do, the increased revenue may not offset the expenses we incur in promoting and maintaining our brand and reputation. If our efforts to cost-effectively promote and maintain our brand are not successful, our results of operations and our ability to attract and engage consumers, agencies, and agents may be adversely affected. Further, even if our brand recognition and consumer loyalty increase, this may not yield increased revenue for us.

Unfavorable publicity regarding our customer service, privacy, data security, data protection practices, and certain agencies with which we have a relationship could also harm our reputation and diminish confidence in, and the use of, our services. Fear of loss of consumers or lack of consumer adoption due to poor service quality or negative customer or shopper reviews or press may make agencies or agents reluctant to remain with us. The same negative network effects could occur as a result of trust and safety or fraud incidents as well as data breaches and other data security incidents. In addition, negative publicity related to agencies or carriers with whom we work may damage our reputation, even if the publicity is not directly related to us. If we fail to maintain, protect, and enhance our brand successfully or to maintain loyalty among consumers, agencies, and carriers, or if we incur substantial expenses in unsuccessful attempts to maintain, protect, and enhance our brand, we may fail to attract or increase the engagement of consumers, agencies, and carriers, and our business, financial condition, and results of operations may suffer.

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We expect a number of factors to cause our results of operations and operating cash flows to fluctuate on a quarterly and annual basis, which may make it difficult to predict our future performance.

Our results of operations could vary significantly from quarter to quarter and year to year because of a variety of factors, many of which are outside of our control. As a result, comparing our results of operations on a period-to-period basis may not be meaningful. In addition to other risk factors discussed in this section, factors that may contribute to the variability of our quarterly and annual results include:

The impact of one or more of the foregoing and other factors may cause our results of operations to vary significantly. As such, quarter-to-quarter and year-over-year comparisons of our results of operations may not be meaningful and should not be unduly relied upon as an indication of future performance.

Changes in our accounting estimates and assumptions could negatively affect our financial position and operating results.

We prepare our consolidated financial statements in accordance with GAAP. These accounting principles require us to make assumptions, estimates or judgments that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenue, and expenses in our consolidated financial statements. We are required to make certain judgments and estimates that affect the disclosed and recorded amounts of revenue and expenses related to accounting under Accounting Standards Codification, or ASC, Topic 606 Reverse Recognition. For example, persistency estimates may be more variable early in the life cycle of a product or carrier relationship due to lack of relevant historical data to analyze. Lack of historical data

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as well as experience with post-issue audit practices of new carriers on our platform can result in greater fluctuations in future revenue and cash flows. We periodically evaluate our assumptions, estimates and judgment and conduct persistency assessments with outside advisors on a quarterly basis. We base our estimates and judgments on historical experience and other assumptions that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances. Such assumptions, estimates or judgments, however, are both subjective and could change in the future as more information becomes known, which could impact the amounts reported and disclosed in our consolidated financial statements. Additionally, changes in accounting standards could increase costs to the organization and could have an adverse impact on our future financial position and results of operations.

Our ability to recoup payments from agents and the timing of those recouped payments may impact our business and operating results.

Upon termination of a policy within certain time periods of activation, we are entitled to recoup all or a portion of agent payments. We have historically experienced and may continue to experience delays in receiving recoupment payments from agents beyond contractually prescribed repayment periods. We have limited means to pursue repayments from individual agents, and actions we take to pursue repayments may be perceived negatively by applicable agencies, which may harm our relationships with such agencies. In addition, if we take, or are perceived to take, punitive action against certain highly productive agents who are delayed in paying recoupment amounts, it could negatively impact our business and results of operations. Delays in recoupment of agent repayments may negatively impact our ability to make commission repayments to carriers upon lapses of policies. Any delays in our commission repayments in connection with policy lapses may harm our reputation and relationship with carriers, which would negatively impact our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Non-compliance with or changes in laws, regulations or licensing requirements applicable to us could restrict our ability to conduct our business and impact our results of operations and financial condition.

The industry in which we operate is subject to extensive regulation. We are subject to regulation and supervision both federally and in each applicable local jurisdiction. In general, these regulations are designed to protect customers, policyholders and insureds, and to protect the integrity of the financial markets, rather than to protect stockholders or creditors. Our ability to conduct business in these jurisdictions depends on our compliance with the rules and regulations promulgated by federal regulatory bodies and other regulatory authorities, including requirements to maintain surety bonds in a number of states. Failure to comply with regulatory requirements, or changes in regulatory requirements or interpretations, could result in actions by regulators, potentially leading to fines and penalties, adverse publicity, and damage to our reputation in the marketplace. We may be unable to adapt effectively to any changes in law. Furthermore, in some areas of our businesses, we act on the basis of our own or the industry’s interpretations of applicable laws or regulations, which may conflict from state to state. In the event those interpretations eventually prove different from the interpretations of regulatory authorities, we may be penalized. In extreme cases, revocation of our authority to do business in one or more jurisdictions could result from failure to comply with regulatory requirements. In addition, we could face lawsuits by consumers (including class action lawsuits), insureds, and other parties for alleged violations of certain of these laws and regulations. It is difficult to predict whether changes resulting from new laws and regulations, as well as changes in interpretation of current laws and regulations, will affect the industry or our business and, if so, to what degree.

Insurance agents and their principals who engage in the solicitation, negotiation or sale of insurance, or provide certain other insurance services, generally are required to be licensed individually. Insurance laws and regulations govern whether licensees may share commissions with

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unlicensed entities and individuals. We believe that any payments we make to third parties are in compliance with applicable laws. However, should any regulatory agency take a contrary position and prevail, we will be required to change the manner in which we pay fees to such agents or principals or require entities receiving such payments to become registered or licensed.

State insurance laws grant supervisory agencies, including state insurance departments, broad administrative authority. State insurance regulators and the National Association of Insurance Commissioners continually review existing laws and regulations, some of which affect our business. These supervisory agencies regulate many aspects of the insurance business, including the licensing of insurance brokers and agents and other insurance intermediaries, the handling of third-party funds held in a fiduciary capacity, and trade practices, such as marketing, advertising and compensation arrangements entered into by insurance brokers and agents. These regulators are also increasingly focused on the use of AI in offering and underwriting consumer products. In addition, because we act as both a producer and a third-party administrator to support policy distribution and provide certain administrative services on behalf of carriers, we are required to maintain various state licenses to operate in these roles. Failure to obtain or maintain these licenses, or to comply with associated regulatory requirements, could impair our ability to operate in certain jurisdictions and adversely affect our business. This legal and regulatory oversight could reduce our profitability or limit our growth by increasing the costs of legal and regulatory compliance and by limiting or restricting the products or services we sell, the markets we serve or enter, the methods by which we sell our products and services, and the form of compensation we can accept from our consumers, carriers, and third parties.

We are also subject to U.S. federal and state laws governing marketing and consumer outreach. For example, certain outreach activities, such as marketing calls or text messages, may be subject to Telephone Consumer Protection Act, or TCPA, as interpreted and implemented by the Federal Communications Commission, or FCC and U.S. courts, as well as similar state telemarketing laws, which regulate how and when such communications may be made and can impose significant restrictions on the use of telephone calls and text messages to residential and mobile telephone numbers as a means of communication when prior consent of the person being contacted has not been obtained. Violations of the TCPA may be enforced by the FCC or by individuals through litigation, as we have experienced in the past, including through costly class actions, of which numerous suits under federal and state laws have been filed in recent years against companies who conduct telemarketing and/or SMS texting programs, resulting in significant judgements or settlement awards to the plaintiffs. Further, any changes to the TCPA, its interpretation, or enforcement that further restricts the way we or our agents contact and communicate with potential consumers or generate leads could harm our business, financial condition, and result of operations. Additionally, CAN-SPAM establishes specific requirements for commercial email messages and specifies penalties for the transmission of commercial email. Although we have implemented compliance procedures and may rely on enterprise partners or vendors to manage these activities, we may still face, and have faced, regulatory scrutiny or claims regarding actual or perceived violations of these laws. Our uses of certain personal or health information for marketing and other purposes may also be restricted by federal and state laws and regulations. In addition, because we facilitate financial transactions in connection with the sale and servicing of insurance policies, and collect personal and financial data from applicants, we are subject to certain anti-money laundering and economic sanctions laws and regulations, including those administered by the U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control, or OFAC. Failure to comply with these requirements could result in significant penalties, regulatory investigations, reputational harm, or limitations on our ability to operate.

Additionally, federal, state, and other regulatory authorities have focused on, and continue to devote substantial attention to, the insurance industry as well as to the sale of products or services to seniors. Regulatory review or the issuance of interpretations of existing laws and regulations may result in the enactment of new laws and regulations that could adversely affect our operations or our ability to conduct business profitably. In addition, the growth of our product mix to include more

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complex or variable products further exposes us to risk and regulatory scrutiny of the sale of such products to seniors. For example, our platform now includes wills and estate planning services, which may subject us to additional legal and regulatory requirements, including those relating to the unauthorized practice of law, state-specific documentation standards, and marketing to seniors. We are unable to predict whether any such laws or regulations will be enacted and to what extent such laws and regulations would affect our business.

Fluctuations or an overall decline in economic activity, or any adverse trends in the life insurance industry, could have a material adverse effect on the financial condition and results of operations of our business.

Macroeconomic challenges, including adverse conditions resulting from uncertainty concerning tariffs, the volatility and strength of the capital markets, increased rates of inflation, high interest rates, government shutdowns, debt ceilings or funding, and public health emergencies can and have affected the life insurance industry. Life insurance trends have historically been impacted by changes in interest rates, employment levels, and median household income. Downward fluctuations in the year-over-year insurance premiums charged by insurers to protect against the same risk could adversely affect our commission rates and our revenue growth and margins. Shifts in life insurance trends resulting from macroeconomic uncertainty or changes in mortality rates also harm our ability to accurately predict our business trends as well as our persistency assumptions, which can cause fluctuations in revenue and cash flow in future periods, including from policy cancellations. Insolvencies and consolidations associated with an economic downturn, especially insolvencies in the insurance industry, could adversely affect our business through the reduction in activity of or loss of carriers or agencies as well as a slowdown in the life insurance market. Also, some of our consumers or some agencies may experience liquidity problems or other financial difficulties in the event of a prolonged deterioration in macroeconomic conditions or a recession, which could result in our consumers becoming more price-sensitive to life insurance products and may reduce our ability to or impact the rate at which we recover the portion of agent payments due back to us from terminations. Shifts in consumer demand for product offerings away from those that we or our carriers offer may also negatively impact our revenue growth and margins. For all these reasons, a decline in economic activity could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Our inability to successfully recover should we experience a disaster or other business continuity problem could cause material financial loss, loss of human capital, regulatory actions, reputational harm or legal liability.

Our operations are dependent upon our ability to protect our personnel, offices, and technology infrastructure against damage from business continuity events that could have a significant disruptive effect on our operations. Should we or our critical third-party service providers experience a local or regional disaster or other business continuity problem, such as an earthquake, hurricane, terrorist attack, pandemic, protest or riot, security breach, cyberattack or other similar incident, power loss, telecommunications failure, or other natural or man-made disaster, our continued success will depend, in part, on the availability of personnel, office facilities, and the proper functioning of computer, telecommunication, and other related systems and operations. In events like these, while our operational size, the multiple locations from which we operate, our hybrid work model, and our existing backup systems provide us with some degree of flexibility, we still can experience near-term operational challenges in particular areas of our operations. We could potentially lose key executives, personnel, consumer data or experience material adverse interruptions to our operations or delivery of services to consumers in a disaster recovery scenario. We may experience additional disruption due to system upgrades, outages or an increase in remote work. Our inability to successfully recover, should we experience a disaster or other business continuity problem, could materially interrupt our business operations and cause material financial loss, loss of human capital, regulatory actions, reputational

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harm, damaged consumer relationships, or legal liability. Our insurance coverage with respect to natural disasters is limited and is subject to deductibles and coverage limits. Such coverage may not be adequate, or may not continue to be available at commercially reasonable rates and terms.

If we are unable to apply technology effectively in driving value for our consumers through technology-based solutions or gain internal efficiencies and effective internal controls through the application of technology and related tools, our operating results, consumer relationships, growth, and compliance programs could be adversely affected.

Our future success depends, in part, on our ability to anticipate and respond effectively to the threat of, and the opportunity presented by, digital disruption and other technology changes. These may include new applications or insurance-related services based on AI or machine learning technologies. We may be exposed to competitive risks related to the adoption and application of new technologies by established market participants (for example, through disintermediation) or new entrants such as technology companies, Insurtech start-up companies, and others. We must also develop and implement technology solutions and technical expertise among our employees that anticipate and keep pace with rapid and continuing changes in technology, industry standards, customer preferences and internal control standards. We may not be successful in anticipating or responding to these developments on a timely and cost-effective basis, and our ideas may not be accepted in the marketplace. Additionally, the effort to gain technological expertise and develop new technologies in our business requires us to incur significant expenses. Our technological development projects may also not deliver the benefits we expect once they are completed or may be replaced or become obsolete more quickly than expected, which could result in the accelerated recognition of expenses. If we cannot offer new technologies as quickly as our competitors, or if our competitors develop more cost-effective technologies or product offerings, we could experience a material adverse effect on our operating results, consumer relationships, growth, and compliance programs.

If we do not continue to innovate and further develop our platform, our platform developments do not perform, we do not successfully manage our platform strategy, or we are not able to keep pace with technological developments, we may not remain competitive and our business and results of operations could suffer.

Our success depends in part on our ability to continue to innovate and further develop our platform. To remain competitive, we must continuously enhance and improve the functionality and features of our platform, including our website and mobile application and the suite of agent and other customer services that we offer through our platform. To compete effectively, we must also provide a convenient, efficient, and reliable customer experience on our platform, and we may be unable to effectively address customer needs or identify emerging customer trends.

In addition, any new features or functionalities for our platform that we develop may not be introduced in a timely or cost-effective manner, may contain errors or defects, or may not achieve broad market acceptance. Agents may delay adoption and use of new features or functionalities and compare them against potentially competitive products in the market. Further, we may make changes to our platform and platform strategy that consumers, agents, or carriers do not find useful, and we may discontinue certain features or functionalities that our consumers or agents have otherwise enjoyed. Failure to effectively manage our platform and platform strategy could lead to consumer, agent or carrier dissatisfaction, which could adversely affect our business and operating results. If existing and new consumers do not perceive the services provided by agents that utilize our platform or the products offered by carriers on our platform to be reliable, competitive, and affordable, or if we fail to offer new and relevant features and functionalities on our platform, we may not be able to attract consumers or to increase the number of policies activated on our platform, any of which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

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Further, if competitors introduce new features, offerings, or technologies, or if new industry standards and practices or customer trends emerge, our existing technology, services, websites, and mobile application may become less popular or obsolete. In the event that our competitors’ technology is, or is perceived to be, superior to our or our partners’ technology, they may be able to leverage such technology to compete more effectively with us, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations. Our future success could depend in large part on our ability to invest in, develop, and respond to technological advances and emerging industry standards and practices in a cost-effective and timely manner.

Our inability to retain or hire qualified employees, as well as the loss of any of our executive officers, could negatively impact our ability to retain existing business and generate new business.

Our success depends on our ability to attract and retain skilled and experienced personnel. There is significant competition from within the insurance industry and from businesses outside the industry for exceptional employees, especially in key positions. Our competitors may be able to offer a work environment with higher compensation or more opportunities than we can. Any new personnel we hire may not be or become as productive as we expect, as we may face challenges adequately or appropriately integrating them into our workforce culture. Our effort to retain and develop personnel may also result in significant additional expenses, which could adversely affect our profitability. If we are unable to successfully attract, retain, and motivate our employees, whether as a result of an insufficient number of qualified applicants, difficulty in recruiting new employees, or inadequate resources to train, integrate, and retain qualified employees, our business, financial condition, results of operations, and reputation could be materially and adversely affected.

If any of our key professionals were to join an existing competitor or form a competing company, some of our carriers, agency counterparties, and consumers could choose to use the services of that competitor instead of our services.

In addition, we could be adversely affected if we fail to adequately plan for the succession of our senior management, including our founders, executives, and key personnel. We currently do not maintain key person insurance on these individuals. Although we operate with a decentralized management system, the loss of our senior management or other key personnel in any circumstance, including any limitation on the performance of their duties or short- or long-term absence as a result of an acute illness, or our inability to continue to identify, recruit, and retain such personnel, could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operation.

Any failure to offer high-quality support for our platform may harm our relationships with consumers, agents, and carriers and could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Our ability to attract and retain consumers, agents, and carriers is dependent in part on our ability to provide high-quality support for our platform. Consumers, agents, agencies, and carriers depend on our support organization to resolve any issues relating to our platform. If we are unable to resolve issues in a timely and effective manner, whether raised by prospective or existing policyholders, or by agents and agencies, those users may lose trust in our platform, disengage from our offerings, or shift their business elsewhere. This could result in lower policy volume, reputational harm, and reduced commission revenue. As we continue to grow our business and expand our offerings, we will face challenges related to providing high-quality platform support services at scale. Any failure to maintain high-quality support for our platform, or a market perception that we do not maintain high-quality support, could harm our reputation and adversely affect our ability to scale our platform and business, our financial condition, and results of operations.

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We use third-party cloud service providers to deliver our platform services. Any disruption of services from our cloud service providers could harm our business.

We currently manage our platform services and serve all of our consumers through third-party cloud computing services, such as Amazon Web Services. If, for any reason, we are required to migrate our computing to other cloud service providers, such a transition could require significant time and expense and our business could be adversely impacted.

Our third-party cloud service providers do not guarantee that access to our platform will be uninterrupted or error-free. Any damage to, or failure of, our providers’ systems could result in interruptions to our platform. Interruptions in our services would reduce our revenue, subject us to potential liability and adversely affect our ability to retain our consumers or attract new consumers and would also impact our relationships with carriers and agents using our platform. The performance, reliability, and availability of our platform is critical to our reputation and our ability to attract and retain consumers, agents, and carriers with whom we have a direct relationship. If service interruptions occur, consumers, agents, or carriers could share information about negative experiences on social media or via other channels, which could result in damage to our reputation and loss of future sales. In addition, the hosting costs for our cloud services have increased over time and may increase further if we continue to require more computing or storage capacity and such capacity may not be available on the same terms or with the same costs or at all. These costs could adversely impact our business and financial condition.

Our business, financial condition, and results of operations may be negatively affected by E&O claims.

We are subject to claims and litigation in the ordinary course of business resulting from alleged and actual errors and omissions in placing insurance and rendering coverage advice. These activities involve substantial amounts of money. Since E&O claims against us may allege our liability for all or part of the amounts in question, claimants may seek large damage awards. These claims can involve significant defense costs. Errors and omissions could include failure, whether negligently or intentionally, to place coverage on behalf of consumers, to provide carriers with complete and accurate information relating to the risks being insured, or to appropriately apply funds that we hold on a fiduciary basis. It is not always possible to prevent or detect errors and omissions, and the precautions we take may not be effective in all cases.

We have errors and omissions insurance coverage to protect against the risk of liability resulting from our alleged and actual errors and omissions. Prices for this insurance and the scope and limits of the coverage terms available are dependent on our claims history as well as market conditions that are outside of our control. While we endeavor to purchase coverage that is appropriate to our assessment of our risk, we are unable to predict with certainty the frequency, nature or magnitude of claims for direct or consequential damages or whether our errors and omissions insurance will cover such claims.

In establishing liabilities for E&O claims, we utilize case level reviews by inside and outside counsel and an internal analysis to estimate potential losses. The liability is reviewed annually and adjusted as developments warrant. Given the unpredictability of E&O claims and of litigation that could flow from them, an adverse outcome in a particular matter could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations, financial condition or cash flow in a given quarterly or annual period.

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In connection with the implementation of our corporate strategies, we face risks associated with the acquisition or disposition of businesses, the entry into new lines of business, the integration of acquired businesses, and the growth and development of these businesses.

In pursuing our corporate strategy, we have in the past acquired, and may in the future acquire, other businesses or dispose of or exit businesses we currently own. The success of this strategy is dependent upon our ability to identify appropriate acquisition and disposition targets, negotiate transactions on favorable terms, complete transactions and, in the case of acquisitions, successfully integrate them into our existing businesses. If a proposed transaction is not consummated, the time and resources spent in researching it could adversely result in missed opportunities to locate and acquire other businesses. If we make acquisitions, we may not realize the anticipated benefits of such acquisitions, including revenue growth, operational efficiencies or expected synergies. If we dispose of or otherwise exit certain businesses, we may incur material disposition-related charges, or we may be unable to reduce overhead related to the divested assets.

From time to time, either through acquisitions or internal development, we may enter new lines of business or offer new products and services within existing lines of business. These new lines of business or new products and services may present additional risks, particularly in instances where the markets are not fully developed. Such risks include the investment of significant time and resources; the possibility that these efforts will not be successful; the possibility that the marketplace does not accept our products or services, or that we are unable to retain consumers that adopt our new products or services; and the risk of additional liabilities associated with these efforts. In addition, many of the businesses that we acquire and develop will likely have significantly smaller scales of operations prior to the implementation of our growth strategy. If we are not able to manage the growing complexity of these businesses, including improving, refining, or revising our systems and operational practices, and enlarging the scale and scope of the businesses, our business may be adversely affected. Other risks include developing knowledge of and experience in the new business, integrating the acquired business into our systems and culture, recruiting professionals, and developing and capitalizing on new relationships with experienced market participants. External factors, such as compliance with new or revised regulations, competitive alternatives and shifting market preferences may also impact the successful implementation of a new line of business. Failure to manage these risks in the acquisition or development of new businesses could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

If we fail to improve and enhance the functionality, performance, reliability, design, security, and scalability of our platform and innovate and introduce new solutions in a manner that responds to our consumers’ evolving needs, our business may be adversely affected.

The life insurance markets in which we compete are characterized by constant change and innovation and we expect them to continue to evolve rapidly. Our success has been based on our ability to identify and anticipate the needs of our consumers and design and maintain a platform that provides them with the tools they need to operate their businesses. Our ability to attract new consumers, earn renewal revenue, being commissions received from the carrier after the first term of a policy, from existing consumers and increase sales to both new and existing consumers will depend in large part on our ability to continue to improve and enhance the functionality, performance, reliability, design, security, and scalability of our platform and to innovate and introduce new solutions. If we fail to anticipate and address consumers’ rapidly changing needs and expectations or adapt to emerging trends, our reputation could be harmed and our business, operating results, and financial condition could suffer.

Furthermore, we expect adoption of our platform and solutions by carriers, agency counterparties, agents, and consumers to increase. As the number of carriers with greater product offerings

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increases, so does the need for us to offer increased functionality, performance, reliability, scalability, and support, which requires us to devote additional resources to such efforts. Furthermore, as adoption of our platform and solutions by carriers, agency counterparties, agents, and consumers increases, so does the scrutiny and audit requirements imposed on us by our partners, which may demand assurances regarding the security and compliance of our platform. We have in the past, and may in the future be required to undergo third-party audits or obtain industry certifications to validate the effectiveness of our controls. These audits and certifications can be costly and time-consuming. To the extent we are not able to enhance our platform’s functionality to satisfy these requirements, our business, operating results, reputation, and financial condition could be adversely affected.

We may experience difficulties with software development that could delay or prevent the development, introduction, or implementation of new solutions and enhancements. We must also continually update, test, and enhance our software platform. The continual improvement and enhancement of our platform requires significant investment and we may not have the resources to make such investment. We may make significant investments in new solutions or enhancements that may not achieve expected returns and such solutions or enhancements may not result in our ability to recoup our investments in a timely manner, or at all. The improvement and enhancement of the functionality, performance, reliability, design, security, and scalability of our platform is expensive and complex, and to the extent we are not able to execute on these efforts in a manner that responds to our consumers’ evolving needs, our business, operating results, and financial condition will be adversely affected.

Our results may be adversely affected by changes in the mode of compensation in the insurance industry.

In the past, state regulators have scrutinized the manner in which insurance brokers are compensated. For example, in 2004, the Attorney General of the State of New York brought charges against members of the insurance brokerage community. These actions have created uncertainty concerning longstanding methods of compensating insurance brokers. Given that the insurance brokerage industry has faced scrutiny from regulators in the past over its compensation practices, and the transparency and discourse to consumers regarding brokers’ compensation, it is possible that regulators may choose to revisit the same or other practices in the future. If they do so, compliance with new regulations along with any sanctions that might be imposed for past practices deemed improper could have an adverse impact on our future results of operations and inflict significant reputational harm on our business.

Internet search engines drive traffic to our platform and our new user growth could decline if we fail to appear prominently in search results.

Our success depends in part on our ability to attract consumers through Internet search results on search engines such as Google. The number of consumers we attract to our platform from search engines is due in large part to how and where our websites rank in unpaid search results. These rankings can be affected by a number of factors, many of which are not under our direct control and may change frequently. For example, a search engine may change its ranking algorithms, terms of service, methodologies, or design layouts. As a result, links to our websites may not be prominent enough to drive traffic to our websites, and we may not know how or otherwise be in a position to influence the results. In some instances, search engine companies may change these rankings in a way that promotes their own competing products or services or the products or services of one or more of our competitors. Search engines may also adopt a more aggressive auction-pricing system for keywords that would cause us to incur higher advertising costs or reduce our market visibility to prospective consumers. Any reduction in the number of consumers directed to our platform could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

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Damage to our reputation could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Our reputation is one of our key assets. Our ability to attract and retain consumers is highly dependent upon the external perceptions of our level of service, trustworthiness, business practices, financial condition, and other subjective qualities. If a carrier, agency or group of agents is not satisfied with our platform, we may incur additional costs to address the sources of dissatisfaction or lose the relationship altogether, which may negatively impact other carriers’, agencies’, or agents’ perception regarding us. Our success is also dependent on maintaining a good reputation with existing and potential employees, agents, investors, regulators, and the communities in which we operate. Negative perceptions or publicity regarding these or other matters, including our association with consumers or business partners who themselves have a damaged reputation, or from actual or alleged conduct by us or our employees, could damage our reputation. Any resulting erosion of trust and confidence among existing and potential consumers, existing or potential agents, regulators, and other parties important to the success of our business could make it difficult for us to attract new consumers and maintain existing ones, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Risks Related to Intellectual Property, Data Privacy, and Security

We and the third parties with whom we work are subject to stringent and evolving U.S. laws, regulations, and rules, contractual obligations, industry standards, policies, and other obligations related to data privacy and security. Our actual or perceived failure (or that of the third parties with whom we work) to comply with such obligations could lead, and in certain cases has led, to regulatory investigations or actions, litigation (including class action claims) and mass arbitration demands, fines and penalties, disruptions of our business operations, reputational harm, loss of revenue or profits, loss of consumers or sales, and other adverse business consequences.

In the ordinary course of business, we collect, receive, store, process, generate, use, transfer, disclose, make accessible, protect, secure, dispose of, transmit, and share, or collectively, process, personal information (which may also be referred to as “personally identifiable information,” “personal data,” “individually identifiable health information,” “consumer health data,” or similar terms), including sensitive information, such as proprietary and confidential business data, trade secrets, intellectual property, sensitive personal information and sensitive third-party data, or collectively, sensitive data. For example, we process personal information (including sensitive data) of our current, prospective, and past customers, which includes health data, financial data, and other personal information and sensitive data (such as social security numbers) as disclosed in our public-facing privacy notices.

Our data collection and processing activities subject us to numerous data privacy and security obligations, such as various laws, regulations, guidance, industry standards, external and internal privacy and security policies, contractual requirements, and other obligations relating to data privacy and security. These requirements and obligations also apply to transfers of information among our affiliates, as well as to transactions we enter into with vendors and other third parties.

In the United States, federal, state, and local governments have enacted numerous data privacy and security laws, including data breach notification laws, comprehensive and sector-specific privacy laws and regulations, consumer protection laws (e.g., Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act), and other similar laws (e.g., wiretapping laws). At the U.S. federal level, we are subject to, among other laws, the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, or GLBA, which requires financial institutions, including insurers, to, among other things, periodically disclose their privacy policies and practices relating to sharing “nonpublic personal information” and, in some cases, enables customers to opt out of the sharing of certain personal information with unaffiliated third parties. The GLBA also requires financial institutions

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to implement an information security program that includes administrative, technical, and physical safeguards to ensure the security and confidentiality of customer records and information. We are also subject to the rules and regulations promulgated under the authority of the U.S. Federal Trade Commission, or FTC. The FTC and state regulators enforce a variety of data privacy and cybersecurity issues, such as misrepresentations in privacy policies or failures to appropriately protect information about individuals, as unfair or deceptive acts or practices in or affecting commerce in violation of the FTC Act or similar state laws. While we are not directly subject to the federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, as amended, including as amended by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act, or HITECH, and the regulations that implement such laws (collectively, HIPAA), HIPAA affects certain of our business operations. For example, we obtain individuals’ medical and health information from their medical providers and other entities, which we then use for the purposes of determining applicants’ eligibility for life insurance. Many medical providers and other entities cannot release such medical and health information to us unless the release authorizations signed by the individuals satisfy the applicable HIPAA requirements. We also represent in our contractual agreements with key vendors that we comply with HIPAA’s requirements for authorizations to disclose protected health information.

Numerous U.S. states have enacted comprehensive privacy laws that impose certain obligations on covered businesses, including providing specific disclosures in privacy notices and affording residents with certain rights concerning their personal information. As applicable, such rights may include the right to access, correct, or delete certain personal information, and to opt-out of certain data processing activities, such as targeted advertising, profiling, sales of personal information, and automated decision-making. The exercise of these rights may impact our business and ability to provide our products and services. Certain states also impose stricter requirements for processing certain personal information, including sensitive personal information, such as conducting data privacy impact assessments and requiring individual’s consent under certain circumstances. These state laws allow for statutory fines for noncompliance. For example, the California Consumer Privacy Act of 2018, as amended by the California Privacy Rights Act of 2020, and all regulations thereto, or collectively, CCPA, applies to personal information of consumers, business representatives, employees, and others who are California residents, and requires businesses to provide specific disclosures in privacy notices and honor requests of such individuals to exercise certain privacy rights including the opt-out of “sales” and “sharing” (as such terms are defined by CCPA) of personal information. The CCPA provides for fines and allows private litigants affected by certain data breaches to recover significant statutory damages. The CCPA includes an exemption applicable to personal information collected, processed, sold or disclosed subject to the GLBA, and other comprehensive U.S. state privacy laws contain similar exemptions for GLBA-covered data or broader exemptions for GLBA-covered entities. However, these developments may further complicate compliance efforts, and increase legal risk and compliance costs for us and the third parties with whom we work. Similar laws have been passed and/or are being considered in additional states, as well as at the federal level, and we expect more states to pass similar laws in the future.

We are subject to various state financial privacy laws such as the California Financial Information Privacy Act. These laws require, among other things, providing either an opt-in or opt-out, depending on the state, to the sharing of non-public personal information with unaffiliated third parties. They also require establishing a program of administrative, technical, and physical safeguards designed to protect the security and confidentiality of customer information. Additionally, in response to the growing threat of cyber-attacks in the insurance industry, certain jurisdictions, including New York, have begun to consider new cybersecurity measures, including the adoption of cybersecurity regulations. In March 2017, the New York State Department of Financial Services, or NYDFS, promulgated Cybersecurity Requirements for Financial Services Companies, which require covered financial institutions to establish and maintain a cybersecurity program and implement and maintain cybersecurity policies and procedures that meet specific requirements; the NYDFS adopted amendments to the cybersecurity regulation in 2023, the

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majority of which became effective in 2024. Additionally, in October 2017, the National Association of Insurance Commissioners, or NAIC, adopted its Insurance Data Security Model Law, intended to serve as model legislation for states to enact in order to govern cybersecurity and data protection practices of insurers, insurance agents, and other licensed entities registered under state insurance laws. Various states have adopted versions of the NAIC Insurance Data Security Model Law.

Several states have also enacted new laws and regulations governing the privacy and security of consumer health data. For example, Washington’s My Health My Data Act, or MHMDA, broadly defines consumer health data, places restrictions on collecting, processing, using, and sharing consumer health data (including imposing stringent requirements for affirmative consents), provides consumers certain rights with respect to their health data, and creates a private right of action to allow individuals to sue for violations of the law. While the MHMDA includes an exemption applicable to GLBA-covered data, and a similar law in Nevada also exempts GLBA-covered entities, other states are considering and may adopt consumer health data privacy laws in the future.

Additionally, under various privacy laws and other obligations, we may be required to obtain certain consents to process personal information. For example, some of our data processing practices have been and may in the future be subject to challenges or lawsuits under data privacy and communications laws, including for example under wiretapping laws, if we share consumer information with third parties through various methods, including chatbot and session replay providers, or via third-party marketing pixels, as has occurred. These practices may be subject to increased challenges by class action plaintiffs for violations of laws such as the California Invasion of Privacy Act and other similar laws. Our inability or failure to obtain consent for these practices could result, and in certain cases has resulted, in adverse consequences, including class action litigation and mass arbitration demands.

Regulators are increasingly scrutinizing the activities of third-party data suppliers, and laws in the United States (including the CCPA and California’s Delete Act) and other jurisdictions are likewise regulating such activity. These laws pose additional, material compliance risks to such data suppliers, and these suppliers may not be able to provide us with personal information in compliance with these laws. For example, some data suppliers are required to register as data brokers under certain state laws such as California law and file reports with regulators, which exposes them to increased scrutiny. Additionally, California’s Delete Act requires the California Privacy Protection Agency, or the CPPA, to establish by January 1, 2026 a mechanism to allow California consumers to submit a single, verifiable request to delete all of their personal information held by all registered data brokers and their service providers. Moreover, third-party data suppliers have recently been subject to increased litigation under

various claims of violating certain state privacy laws. These laws and challenges may make it so difficult for our suppliers to provide the data that the costs associated with the data materially increase or may materially decrease the availability of data that our data suppliers can provide to us.

In addition, we may face compliance risks and limitations on our ability to use certain data provided by our third-party suppliers if those suppliers have not complied with applicable privacy laws, provided appropriate notice to data subjects, obtained necessary consents, or established a legal basis for the transfer and processing of the data by us.

Additionally, as part of certain lead monetization efforts, we have begun providing lead information from individuals who start but do not complete the insurance application process on our platform to a limited number of third-party agencies. While we intend for this information to be used solely for insurance-related purposes and by agencies, once shared, we do not control how these agencies handle the data. As a result, this initiative may expose us to heightened privacy, data security, and reputational risks, particularly if these third parties fail to comply with applicable laws or consumer expectations regarding the handling of personal information.

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We publish privacy policies, marketing materials, and other statements concerning data privacy, and security. Regulators in the United States are increasingly scrutinizing these statements, and if these policies, materials, or statements are found to be deficient, lacking in transparency, deceptive, unfair, misleading, or misrepresentative of our practices, we may be subject to investigation, enforcement actions by regulators, or other adverse consequences. We are also bound by contractual obligations related to data privacy and security, with which we may not fully comply and our efforts to comply with such obligations may not be successful. For example, certain privacy laws require us to undertake certain obligations with respect to data privacy and security or require us or our customers to impose specific contractual restrictions on our or their service providers.

Legal requirements and obligations related to data privacy and security (and consumers’ data privacy expectations) are quickly changing, becoming increasingly stringent, and creating uncertainty. Additionally, these obligations may be subject to differing applications and interpretations, which may be inconsistent or conflict among jurisdictions. Preparing for and complying with these obligations requires us to devote significant resources, which may necessitate changes to our services, information technologies, systems, and practices and to those of any third parties that process personal information on our behalf. In addition, these obligations may require us to change our business model in part because our business model depends on our ability to process personal information. As such, we are particularly exposed to the risks associated with the rapidly changing legal landscape, including with respect to data privacy laws and regulations. For example, we may be at heightened risk of regulatory scrutiny, and any changes in the regulatory framework could require us to fundamentally change our business model, which could adversely impact our business, financial condition and/or results of operations. In addition, we are and may become in the future contractually subject to self-regulatory standards adopted by industry groups. For example, we are subject to the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard, or PCI DSS, a self-regulatory standard that requires companies that accept payment cards, or that process payment card information to implement certain cybersecurity measures and/or annually validate that required security controls are in place. Companies that accept payment cards but otherwise outsource payment card processing to a third party and do not process payment card information themselves, as we do, are subject to minimal requirements under the PCI DSS. If we or our payment processors fail to comply with the PCI DSS, we may incur significant fines or liability and lose access to major payment card systems.

We may at times fail (or be perceived to have failed) to comply with our data privacy and security obligations. Moreover, despite our efforts, our personnel or third parties with whom we work may fail to comply with such obligations, which could negatively impact and in certain cases has negatively impacted our business operations. If we or the third parties with whom we work fail, or are perceived to have failed, to address or comply with applicable data privacy and security obligations, we could face significant consequences, including: government enforcement actions (e.g., investigations, fines, penalties, audits, inspections, consent orders, injunctions, settlement, or resolution orders and similar); litigation (including class-action claims) and mass arbitration demands; additional reporting requirements and/or oversight and requirements to take remedial actions; bans or restrictions on processing personal information; and orders to destroy or not use personal information. In particular, plaintiffs have become increasingly more active in bringing privacy-related claims against companies, including class claims and mass arbitration demands. Some of these claims allow for the recovery of statutory damages on a per violation basis, and, if viable, carry the potential for monumental statutory damages, depending on the volume of data and the number of violations.

We have in the past received, and may in the future receive, inquiries and have been, and may again become, subject to investigations, proceedings, orders, or various government inquiries regarding our data privacy and security practices and processing and related litigation. For example, in 2022, we learned that threat actors had launched an attack against our website and obtained consumer personal information from a third-party integration. As a result, we were the subject of class

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action litigation that has since settled as well as inquiries and investigations from various state regulators, all of which have since settled. While we maintain policies, procedures, and technological safeguards designed to protect the security and privacy of this information, including those implemented to prevent access to consumer personal information, we cannot eliminate the risk of improper access to or disclosure of personal information nor the related costs we incur to mitigate the consequences from such events. Data privacy and cybersecurity laws, rules, and regulations are matters of growing public concern and are continuously changing in the jurisdictions in which we operate. The failure to adhere to or successfully implement adequate policies and procedures in response to evolving laws, rules, and regulations could result in legal liability or other adverse impacts on our business such as impairment to our reputation.

Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, or financial condition, including: loss of consumers; interruptions or stoppages in our business operations; inability to process personal information; limited ability to develop or commercialize our products or services; expenditure of time and resources to defend any claim or inquiry; adverse publicity; or substantial changes to our business model or operations.

If our information technology systems or those of third parties with whom we work or our data, are or were compromised, we could experience adverse consequences resulting from such compromise, including regulatory investigations or actions, litigation, fines and penalties, disruptions of our business operations, reputational harm, loss of revenue or profits, loss of consumers or sales, and other adverse consequences.

Cyber-attacks, data breaches, malicious internet-based activity, online and offline fraud, and other similar activities and/or cybersecurity incidents threaten the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of our and our customers’ personal information (including sensitive data) and information technology systems, and those of the third parties with whom we work. Any such incidents may also compromise confidential business information, result in intellectual property or other confidential or proprietary information being accessed, disclosed, misused, lost, or stolen, including customer, employee or company data (including personal information and other sensitive or regulated data), which could harm our reputation, competitive position or otherwise adversely affect our business. Such threats are prevalent and continue to rise and evolve, are increasingly difficult to detect, and come from a variety of sources, including traditional computer “hackers,” threat actors, “hacktivists,” organized criminal threat actors, personnel (such as through theft or misuse), AI agents, sophisticated nation states, and nation-state-supported actors.

We and the third parties with whom we work are subject to a variety of evolving threats, including social-engineering attacks (including through deep fakes, which may be increasingly more difficult to identify as fake, and phishing attacks), malicious code (such as viruses and worms), malware (including as a result of advanced persistent threat intrusions), denial-of-service attacks, credential stuffing attacks, credential harvesting, personnel misconduct or error, ransomware attacks, supply-chain attacks, software bugs, server malfunctions, software or hardware failures, loss of data or other information technology assets, adware, telecommunications failures, attacks enhanced or facilitated by AI, and other similar threats.

In particular, severe ransomware attacks are becoming increasingly prevalent and could lead to significant interruptions in our operations, ability to provide our products or services, loss of sensitive data and income, reputational harm, and diversion of funds. In certain cases, payments may alleviate the negative impact of a ransomware attack, but we may be unwilling or unable to make such payments due to, for example, applicable laws or regulations prohibiting such payments. And even if we do make any such payments, doing so does not guarantee that we will regain access to any impacted systems or data and does not absolve us of liability under any applicable legal frameworks such as data breach and data

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security laws and regulations. Further, some actors now engage and are expected to continue to engage in cyber-attacks, including without limitation nation-state actors for geopolitical reasons and in conjunction with military conflicts and defense activities. During times of war and other major conflicts, we, the third parties with whom we work, and our customers may be vulnerable to a heightened risk of these attacks, including retaliatory cyber-attacks, that could materially disrupt our systems and operations, supply chain, and ability to sell or provide our services. In addition, remote work has increased risks to our information technology systems and data, as our employees and others utilize network connections, computers and devices outside our premises or network, including working at home, while in transit, and in public locations.

Moreover, it may be difficult and/or costly to detect, investigate, mitigate, contain, and remediate a security incident or data breach, and our efforts to do so may not be successful. Any actions taken by us or the third parties with whom we work to detect, investigate, mitigate, contain, and remediate a security incident or data breach could result in outages, data losses, and disruptions of our business among other risks and issues. Threat actors may also gain access to other networks and systems after a compromise of our networks and systems.

There are many additional factors that could expose us to cybersecurity risks and vulnerabilities. For example, future or past business transactions (such as acquisitions or integrations) could expose us to additional cybersecurity risks and vulnerabilities, as our systems could be negatively affected by vulnerabilities present in acquired or integrated entities’ systems and technologies. Furthermore, we may discover security issues that were not found during due diligence of such acquired or integrated entities, and it may be difficult to integrate companies into our information technology environment and security program.

We also rely on third parties to operate critical business systems to process sensitive data in a variety of contexts including, without limitation, cloud-based infrastructure, data center facilities, encryption and authentication technology, employee email, content delivery to customers, and other functions. Our ability to monitor these third parties’ information security practices is limited, and these third parties may not have adequate information security measures in place despite any statements or representations they might make. If the third parties with whom we work experience a security incident or other interruption, we could experience adverse consequences. While we may be entitled to damages if the third parties with whom we work fail to satisfy their privacy or security-related obligations to us, any award may be insufficient to cover our damages, or we may be unable to recover such award. In addition, supply-chain attacks have increased in frequency and severity, and at any given moment third parties’ infrastructure in our supply chain or that of the third parties with whom we work could be compromised.

While we have implemented security measures designed to protect against security incidents and data breaches, there can be no assurance that these measures will be effective. We take steps designed to detect, mitigate, and remediate vulnerabilities in our information systems (such as our hardware and/or software, including that of third parties with whom we work). However, we have not and will not in the future be able to detect and remediate all such vulnerabilities including on a timely basis. Further, we have and may in the future experience delays in developing and deploying remedial measures and patches designed to address identified vulnerabilities. Any existing and/or unidentified vulnerabilities could be exploited and result in a security incident or data breach at any time.

Any of the previously identified or similar threats have in the past and may in the future cause a security incident or other interruption that have in the past and may in the future result in unauthorized, unlawful, or accidental acquisition, modification, destruction, loss, alteration, encryption, disclosure of, or access to our confidential or sensitive data or our information technology systems, or those of the third parties with whom we work. For example, and as described above, in 2022, we learned that threat actors had launched attacks against our website and obtained consumer personal information from a

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third-party integration. While we maintain policies, procedures, and technological safeguards designed to protect the security and privacy of this information, including those implemented to prevent access to consumer personal information, we cannot eliminate the risk of improper access to or disclosure of personal information nor the related costs we incur to mitigate the consequences from such events. A data breach, security incident or other interruption could disrupt, and in certain cases has disrupted, our ability (and that of third parties with whom we work) to provide our services. We may expend significant resources or modify our business activities to try to protect against security incidents. Further, certain data privacy and security obligations have required us to implement and maintain specific security measures or industry-standard or reasonable security measures to protect our information technology systems and sensitive data.

Furthermore, federal laws, laws in all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and several U.S. territories can require businesses to provide notice to consumers whose personal information has been disclosed as a result of a data breach. Applicable data privacy and security obligations may require us, or we may voluntarily choose, to notify relevant stakeholders, including affected individuals, customers, regulators, and investors, of security incidents or data breaches, or to take other actions, such as providing credit monitoring and identity theft protection services, and we have done so in the past. Such disclosures and related remedial actions can be costly, and the disclosure or the failure to comply with such applicable requirements could lead to adverse consequences. If we (or a third party with whom we work) experience a security incident or data breach or are perceived to have experienced a security incident or data breach, we may experience, and have in the past experienced, material adverse consequences, such as government enforcement actions (for example, investigations, fines, penalties, audits, and inspections); additional reporting requirements and/or oversight; restrictions on processing personal information (including sensitive data); litigation (including class action claims); indemnification obligations; negative publicity; reputational harm; monetary fund diversions; diversion of management attention; interruptions in our operations (including availability of data); financial loss; and other similar harms. Security incidents and attendant material consequences may prevent or cause customers to stop using our services, deter new customers from using our services, and negatively impact our ability to grow and operate our business.

Furthermore, our contracts may not contain limitations of liability, and even where they do, the limitations of liability in our contracts may not be sufficient to protect us from liabilities, damages, or claims related to our data privacy and security obligations. In addition, we cannot be sure that our insurance coverage will be adequate or sufficient to protect us from or to mitigate liabilities arising out of any issues with our privacy and security practices or any data breaches or other security incidents, that such coverage will continue to be available on commercially reasonable terms or at all, or that such coverage will pay future claims. Any of the foregoing risks could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

We utilize artificial intelligence in connection with our business, which may expose us to regulatory, operational, or reputational risk.

We utilize artificial intelligence, machine learning, and similar tools and technologies, or collectively, AI, that collect, aggregate, analyze or generate data or other materials or content in connection with our business, including ancillary and operational functions, such as customer support, lead targeting, agent fraud detection, and development tooling. The use of AI technologies involves inherent risks which may also increase if our use of AI evolves and expands to other areas of our business. For example, AI tools may be flawed, insufficient, of poor quality, reflect unwanted forms of bias, or contain other errors or inadequacies, any of which may not be easily detectable; AI has been known to produce false or “hallucinatory” inferences or outputs; AI can present ethical issues and may subject us to new or heightened legal, regulatory, ethical, or other challenges; and inappropriate or controversial data practices by developers and end-users, or other factors adversely affecting public opinion of AI, could impair the acceptance of AI solutions, including those incorporated in our products and services. If the AI tools that we use are deficient, inaccurate or controversial, we could incur operational inefficiencies, competitive harm, legal liability, brand or reputation harm, or other

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adverse impacts on our business and financial results. If we do not have sufficient rights to use the data or other material or content or if the data we are using as inputs for AI is not permitted to be further disclosed under state laws or contractual arrangements on which the AI tools we use rely, or the output of such AI tools, we also may incur liability through the violation of applicable laws and regulations, third-party intellectual property, privacy or other rights, or contracts to which we are a party.

Use of AI technologies could include the input of our confidential information (including non-public information and personal information) by third parties in contravention of non-disclosure agreements or by our personnel or other related parties in contravention of our policies and procedures and, in each case, could result in such confidential information becoming part of a dataset that is generally accessible by AI technologies, applications, and users. The misuse or misappropriation of our data could have an adverse impact on our reputation and could subject us to legal and regulatory investigations and/or actions. Further, the use of AI technologies could be affected by claims of infringement, misappropriation or other violations of intellectual property, including based on the use of large datasets used to train AI technologies or the use of output generated by AI technologies, in either case which contain or are substantially similar to material protected by intellectual property, including patents, copyrights or trademarks. Similar claims of infringement, misappropriation or other violations of intellectual property could be made against providers of AI technologies, and affecting users of such AI technologies, which are considered to have substantial similarities to other, pre-existing AI technologies. Moreover, AI technologies will likely be competitive with certain business practices, or increase the obsolescence of certain organizations’ products or services (which might include competitiveness with, or causing the obsolescence of, other AI technologies). Any such developments could affect any use of our or related third parties’ AI technologies and adversely impact, whether directly or indirectly, the success of our business.

AI technologies may also be more susceptible to cybersecurity threats in part given the volume of data they utilize, which, in turn, could make us more susceptible to cybersecurity threats (such as those described under “—Risks Related to Our Business—Cyber attacks, data breaches, security incidents, systems failures, and resulting interruptions in the availability of our websites, mobile applications, platform, or services could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations”) to the extent we rely on AI technologies. Further, we could be exposed to risks to the extent our third-party service providers or other partners use AI technologies in their business activities notwithstanding any preventative policies aimed at governing or restricting the use of such AI technologies. We are not able to control the way third-party products or services are developed, trained or maintained or the way third-party services utilizing AI technologies are provided to us.

The legal and regulatory frameworks within which AI technologies operate continue to rapidly evolve, and it is impossible to predict the full extent of current or future risks related thereto. The technologies underlying AI and its uses are subject to a variety of laws and regulations, including intellectual property, data privacy and cybersecurity, customer protection, competition, and equal opportunity laws, and are expected to be subject to increased regulation and new laws or new applications of existing laws and regulations. AI is the subject of ongoing review by various U.S. governmental and regulatory agencies, and various U.S. states are applying, or are considering applying, their platform moderation, data privacy and cybersecurity laws and regulations to AI or are considering general legal frameworks for AI. For example, the Colorado Department of Insurance has issued regulations requiring life insurers to establish risk-based governance and management frameworks designed to determine whether algorithms and predictive modeling potentially result in unfair discrimination. Additionally, the National Association of Insurance Commissioners issued a model bulletin on the use of AI that has been adopted in some form by more than 20 states. The bulletins generally describe regulators’ expectations that insurance industry participants develop governance frameworks and risk management protocols designed to prevent unfair or discriminatory practices in connection with the use of AI. We may be required to devote additional resources to comply with new or evolving AI-related regulations, and we may not always be able to anticipate or adapt quickly to such changes.

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Furthermore, because AI technology itself is highly complex and rapidly developing, it is not possible to predict all of the legal, operational or technological risks that may arise relating to any use of AI in our business. In particular, AI technologies could significantly disrupt our industry and the markets in which we operate and subject us to increased competition, legal and regulatory risks, and compliance costs, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Failure to obtain, maintain, protect, defend or enforce our intellectual property rights, the infringement, misappropriation, or other violation of our intellectual property by third parties, or allegations that we have infringed, misappropriated or otherwise violated the intellectual property rights of others, could harm our reputation, ability to compete effectively, financial condition, and business.

Our success and ability to compete depends in part on our ability to obtain, maintain, protect, defend, and enforce our intellectual property. To protect our intellectual property rights, we rely on a combination of trademark and copyright laws, trade secret protection, confidentiality agreements, and other contractual arrangements with our affiliates, employees, consumers, strategic partners, and others. However, such measures provide only limited protection and the steps that we take to protect our intellectual property rights may be inadequate to deter infringement, misappropriation or other violation of our intellectual property or proprietary information by others. Further, the failure to protect our domain names could also adversely affect our reputation and brand and make it more difficult for subscribers to find our products and services. We may be unable, without significant cost or at all, to prevent third parties from acquiring domain names that are similar to, infringe upon or otherwise decrease the value of our trademarks and other proprietary rights.

Moreover, while we take precautions designed to protect our intellectual property, competitors, and other unauthorized third parties may copy our technology and use our proprietary brand, content, and information to create or enhance competing solutions and products, which could adversely affect our competitive position in our rapidly evolving and highly competitive industry.

In addition, we may be unable to detect the unauthorized use of our intellectual property rights. Policing unauthorized use of our intellectual property is difficult, expensive, and time-consuming, and we may be required to spend significant resources to monitor and protect our intellectual property rights. Further, currently we do not own any U.S. trademark registrations for our brand names “Ethos” or “Ethos Technologies” that cover the services of our business, though we believe we have established common law rights through usage of such trademarks in commerce. Our lack of a U.S. federal trademark registration for our main brand may limit our ability to enforce such trademarks and expose us to claims from third parties that we have infringed, misappropriated, or otherwise violated their trademarks and/or allow competitors to register similar trademarks, potentially causing consumer confusion and/or harming our reputation. In the event that we opt to rebrand and/or are required to cease using any of our trademarks, we could incur significant costs and risks associated with any rebrand.

Failure to protect our intellectual property adequately could harm our reputation and affect our ability to compete effectively in our industry. In addition, even if we initiate litigation against third parties, such as lawsuits alleging infringement, misappropriation or other violation of our intellectual property, we may not prevail. Litigation brought to protect and enforce our intellectual property rights could be costly, time-consuming, and distracting to management. Our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights may be met with defenses, counterclaims, and countersuits attacking the validity and enforceability of our intellectual property rights. Additionally, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation. An adverse

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determination of any litigation proceedings could put our intellectual property at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and could put our related intellectual property at risk of not issuing or being cancelled. There could also be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions, or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a material adverse effect on the price of our Class A common stock. Any of the foregoing could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

We also cannot guarantee that the operation of our business does not and will not infringe, misappropriate, or otherwise violate the rights of third parties. Third parties may assert intellectual property-related claims against us, including claims of infringement, misappropriation or other violation of their intellectual property, which may be costly to defend, could require the payment of damages, legal fees, settlement payments, royalty payments, and other costs or damages, including treble damages if we are found to have willfully infringed certain types of intellectual property, and could limit our ability to use or offer certain technologies, products or other intellectual property. Additionally, our competitors and other third parties hold numerous trademarks, patents, copyrights, trade secrets and, other intellectual property rights related to technology used in our industry and may hold or obtain trademarks, patents, copyrights, trade secrets and other intellectual property rights that could prevent, limit or interfere with our ability to make, use, develop, sell, or market our products and services, which could make it more difficult for us to operate our business. Any intellectual property claims, with or without merit, could be expensive, take significant time, and divert management’s resources, time, and attention from other business concerns. Moreover, other companies, including our competitors, may have the capability to dedicate substantially greater resources to enforce their intellectual property rights and to defend claims that may be brought against them. Successful challenges against us could require us to modify or discontinue our use of technology or business processes where such use is found to infringe, misappropriate or otherwise violate the rights of others, or require us to purchase costly licenses from third parties, which may not be available on commercially reasonable terms, or at all. Even if a license is available to us, it could be non-exclusive thereby giving our competitors and other third parties access to the same technologies licensed to us, and we may be required to pay significant upfront fees, milestone payments, or royalties, which would increase our operating expenses. Any of the foregoing could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

We employ third-party licensed software for use in our business, and the inability to maintain these licenses or errors in the software we license could result in increased costs or reduced service levels, which would adversely affect our business.

Our business relies on certain third-party software obtained under licenses from other companies. We anticipate that we will continue to rely on such third-party software in the future. Although we believe that there are commercially reasonable alternatives to the third-party software we currently license, this may not always be the case, or it may be difficult or costly to replace. In addition, integration of new third-party software may require significant work and require substantial investment of our time and resources. Our use of additional or alternative third-party software would require us to enter into license agreements with third parties, which may not be available on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Many of the risks associated with the use of third-party software cannot be eliminated, and these risks could negatively affect our business.

Our platform contains third-party open source software components, and failure to comply with the terms of the underlying open source software licenses could restrict our ability to provide our platform and services and subject us to costly litigation or other disputes.

We have in the past incorporated and may in the future incorporate certain open source software into our platform. Open source software is licensed by its authors or owners under open source

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licenses, which in some instances may subject us to certain unfavorable conditions. Use and distribution of open source software may entail greater risks than use of third-party commercial software, as open source licensors generally do not provide support, warranties, indemnification, or other contractual protections regarding infringement claims or the quality of the code. In addition, the public availability of such software may make it easier for others to compromise our platform.

Some open source licenses contain requirements that may, depending on how the licensed software is distributed, conveyed, used or modified, require that we make available source code for modifications or derivative works we create based upon the licensed open source software, authorize further modification and redistribution of that source code, make that source code available at little or no cost, or grant other licenses to our intellectual property. If we combine our proprietary software with open source software in a certain manner, we could be required under certain open source licenses to release the source code of our proprietary software under the terms of an open source software license. This could enable our competitors to create similar offerings with lower development effort and time and ultimately could result in a loss of our competitive advantages. To avoid the release of the affected portions of our source code, we could be required to purchase additional licenses and expend substantial time and resources to re-engineer some or all of our software or cease use or distribution of some or all of our software until we can adequately address the concerns.

Although we have certain policies and procedures in place to monitor our use of open source software that are designed to avoid subjecting our proprietary source code to conditions we do not intend, those policies and procedures may not be effective to detect or address all such conditions. In addition, the terms of many open source licenses have not been interpreted by U.S. or non-U.S. courts, and there is a risk that these licenses could be construed in a way that could impose unanticipated conditions or restrictions on our ability to provide or distribute our platform. There have been claims challenging the ownership of open source software against companies that incorporate open source software into their offerings. As a result, we could be subject to lawsuits by parties claiming ownership of what we believe to be open source software. If we are held to have breached or failed to fully comply with all the terms and conditions of an open source software license, we could face infringement or other liability, or be required to seek costly licenses from third parties to continue providing our platform on terms that are not economically feasible, to re-engineer our platform, to discontinue or delay the provision of our platform if re-engineering could not be accomplished on a timely basis, or to make generally available, in source code form, our proprietary code, any of which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Risks Related to Ownership of Our Common Stock

The dual class structure of our common stock as described in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation has the effect of concentrating voting control with those stockholders who held our stock prior to the closing of this offering and limiting your ability to influence corporate matters, which could adversely affect the trading price of our Class A common stock.

Our Class B common stock has   votes per share, and our Class A common stock, which is the stock we are offering in this initial public offering, has one vote per share. Following the closing of this offering, stockholders who hold shares of Class B common stock, including      , will together hold approximately  % of the voting power of our outstanding capital stock following the closing of this offering, and       will beneficially own approximately  % of our outstanding classes of common stock as a whole, but will control approximately  % of the voting power of our outstanding common stock, following the closing of this offering. As a result,       will have significant influence over our management and affairs and over all matters requiring stockholder approval, including election of directors and significant corporate transactions, such as a merger or other sale of the company or our assets, for the foreseeable future.

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In addition, the holders of Class B common stock collectively will continue to be able to control all matters submitted to our stockholders for approval even if their stock holdings represent less than 50% of the outstanding shares of our common stock. Because of the    -to-1 voting ratio between our Class B common stock and Class A common stock, the holders of our Class B common stock collectively will continue to control a majority of the combined voting power of our common stock even when the shares of Class B common stock represent as little as  % of the outstanding shares of our Class A common stock and Class B common stock. This concentrated control will limit your ability to influence corporate matters for the foreseeable future, and, as a result, the market price of our Class A common stock could be adversely affected.

Future transfers by holders of shares of Class B common stock will generally result in those shares converting to shares of Class A common stock, which will have the effect, over time, of increasing the relative voting power of those holders of Class B common stock who retain their shares in the long term. Certain permitted transfers, as specified in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation that will be in effect immediately prior to the closing of this offering, will not result in shares of Class B common stock automatically converting to shares of Class A common stock.

FTSE Russell does not allow most newly public companies utilizing dual or multi-class capital structures to be included in their indices, including the Russell 2000. Also, in 2017, MSCI, a leading stock index provider, opened public consultations on its treatment of no-vote and multi-class structures and temporarily barred new multi-class listings from certain of its indices; however, in October 2018, MSCI announced its decision to include equity securities “with unequal voting structures” in its indices and to launch a new index that specifically includes voting rights in its eligibility criteria. Under the announced policies, our dual class capital structure would make us ineligible for inclusion in certain indices, and as a result, mutual funds, exchange-traded funds, and other investment vehicles that attempt to passively track these indices will not be investing in our stock. In addition, we cannot assure you that other stock indices will not take similar actions. Given the sustained flow of investment funds into passive strategies that seek to track certain indices, exclusion from certain stock indices would likely preclude investment by many of these funds and would make our Class A common stock less attractive to other investors. As a result, the trading price, volume, and liquidity of our Class A common stock could be adversely affected.

Our stock price may be volatile, and the value of our Class A common stock may decline.

The market price of our Class A common stock may be highly volatile and may fluctuate or decline substantially as a result of a variety of factors, some of which are beyond our control, including:

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In addition, technology stocks have historically experienced high levels of volatility. In the past, companies that have experienced volatility in the market price of their securities have been subject to securities class action litigation. We may be the target of this type of litigation in the future, which could result in substantial expenses and divert our management’s attention.

No public market for our Class A common stock currently exists, and an active public trading market may not develop or be sustained following the closing of this offering.

No public market for our Class A common stock currently exists. An active public trading market for our Class A common stock may not develop following the closing of this offering or, if developed, it may not be sustained. The lack of an active market may impair your ability to sell your shares at the time you wish to sell them or at a price that you consider reasonable. The lack of an active market may also reduce the fair value of your shares. An inactive market may also impair our ability to raise capital to continue to fund operations by selling shares and may impair our ability to acquire other companies or technologies by using our shares as consideration.

We will have broad discretion in the use of the net proceeds to us from this offering and may not use them effectively.

We will have broad discretion in the application of the net proceeds to us from this offering, including for any of the purposes described in the section titled “Use of Proceeds,” and you will not have the opportunity as part of your investment decision to assess whether the net proceeds are being used appropriately. Because of the number and variability of factors that will determine our use of the net proceeds from this offering, our ultimate use may vary substantially from our currently intended use. Investors will need to rely on the judgment of our management with respect to the use of proceeds. Pending use, we may invest the net proceeds from this offering in short-term, investment-grade, interest-bearing securities, such as money market funds, corporate notes and bonds, certificates of deposit, commercial paper, and guaranteed obligations of the U.S. government that may not generate a high yield for our stockholders. If we do not use the net proceeds that we receive in this offering effectively, our business, financial condition, results of operations, and growth prospects could be harmed, and the market price of our Class A common stock could decline.

Future sales of our Class A common stock in the public market could cause the market price of our Class A common stock to decline.

Sales of a substantial number of shares of our Class A common stock in the public market following the closing of this offering, or the perception that these sales might occur, could depress the market price of our Class A common stock and could impair our ability to raise capital through the sale of additional equity securities. Many of our existing equity holders have substantial unrecognized gains on the value of the equity they hold based upon the price of this offering, and therefore, they may take steps to sell their shares or otherwise secure the unrecognized gains on those shares. We are unable to predict the timing of or the effect that such sales may have on the prevailing market price of our Class A common stock.

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All of our directors, executive officers, and the holders of substantially all of our common stock outstanding and securities exercisable for or convertible into our common stock, will enter into lock-up agreements with the underwriters and/or agreements with market stand-off provisions that will restrict our and their ability to sell or transfer shares of our capital stock and securities convertible into or exercisable or exchangeable for shares of our capital stock, for a period of   days from the date of this prospectus, subject to certain customary exceptions and certain provisions that provide for the release of certain shares of our common stock. In addition,   will have the ability to release any of the securities subject to these lock-up agreements at any time, subject to the applicable notice requirements. See the sections titled “Shares Eligible for Future Sale” and “Underwriting” for a discussion of such exceptions and of the provisions that may allow for sales during the Lock-up Period. If not earlier released, all of the shares of Class A common stock not sold in this offering will become eligible for sale upon expiration of the Lock-up Period, except for any shares held by our affiliates as defined in Rule 144 under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act.

In addition, there were   shares of Class B common stock issuable upon the exercise of options and   restricted stock units, or RSUs, to be settled in shares of our Class B common stock as of the date of this prospectus. We intend to register all of the shares of common stock issuable upon exercise of outstanding options, the vesting and settlement of outstanding RSUs, and other equity incentives we may grant in the future, for public resale under the Securities Act. The shares of common stock will become eligible for sale in the public market to the extent such options are exercised or RSUs are vested and settled, subject to the lock-up agreements described above comply with applicable securities laws.

Further, based on shares outstanding as of   , 2025, holders of approximately   shares of our Class B common stock, or  % of our shares outstanding after the closing of this offering, will have rights, subject to some conditions, to require us to file registration statements covering the sale of their shares or to include their shares in registration statements that we may file for ourselves or other stockholders.

We anticipate incurring substantial tax obligations on the initial settlement of certain RSUs in connection with this offering. The manner in which we fund these tax liabilities may have an adverse effect on our financial condition and may further dilute our stockholders.

In light of the number of RSUs that will initially settle in connection with this offering, we anticipate that we will expend substantial funds to satisfy tax withholding and remittance obligations. The majority of the RSUs granted prior to the date of this prospectus vest upon the satisfaction of service-based and liquidity event-based conditions. The service-based condition is generally satisfied over a period of four years. The liquidity event-based condition will be satisfied as of the   of which this prospectus forms a part. As a result, such RSUs that have previously satisfied the service-based condition will vest in connection with the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part. In connection with the settlement of these RSUs, we plan to withhold certain shares underlying RSUs and remit income taxes on behalf of the holders of such RSUs at applicable statutory tax withholding rates based on the initial public offering price per share in this offering. See the section titled “Use of Proceeds.” For RSUs that will vest after the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part and prior to the expiration of the lock-up and/or market stand-off period, we will have discretion to net settle or sell-to-cover shares underlying these RSUs and also to delay settlement of these RSUs following vesting until the expiration of the lock-up and/or market stand-off period.

Based on the number of RSUs for which the service-based condition was fully or partially satisfied on or before the date of this prospectus, and assuming (i) that the value of our Class B common stock at the time of settlement was equal to the initial public offering price of $    per share and (ii) an assumed    % tax withholding rate for the RSUs, we estimate that our tax

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liability on the settlement date for these RSUs will be approximately $    million in the aggregate. Accordingly, we would expect to deliver an aggregate of approximately    million shares of our Class B common stock to RSU holders after withholding an aggregate of approximately    million shares of our Class B common stock. The amount of these tax liabilities and withholdings could be higher or lower, depending on, among other things, the actual price of shares of our Class A common stock sold in this offering, the actual tax withholding rates, and the actual number of RSUs for which the service-based condition has been satisfied on the settlement or vesting date (after accounting for forfeitures prior to the settlement or vesting date). As a result, depending on these factors, we may need to use existing cash, cash equivalents, and investments to fund a portion of these tax withholding and remittance obligations.

We may require additional capital to support the growth of our business, and this capital might not be available on acceptable terms, if at all.

We have funded our operations since inception primarily through equity and debt financings as well as cash generated from operations. We cannot be certain our operations will continue to generate sufficient cash to fully fund our ongoing operations or the growth of our business. We intend to continue to make investments to support our business, which may require us to engage in equity or debt financings to secure additional funds. For example, we have sold commissions receivable in the past as part of our liquidity strategy and may engage in such arrangements in the future. The terms of these arrangements may be less favorable to us in the future, and such arrangements may result in variability in our cash flows, which may complicate our financial planning and period-over-period comparisons. If our use of such arrangements increases, any disruption in our ability to execute such transactions, or changes in their terms, could negatively impact our liquidity and financial condition. Additional financing may not be available on terms favorable to us, if at all. If adequate funds are not available on acceptable terms, we may be unable to invest in future growth opportunities, which could harm our business, results of operations, and financial condition. If we incur additional debt, the debt holders would have rights senior to holders of Class A common stock to make claims on our assets, and the terms of any debt could restrict our operations, including our ability to pay dividends on our Class A common stock. Furthermore, if we issue additional equity securities, including in connection with merger and acquisition transactions, stockholders will experience dilution. In addition, new equity securities could have rights senior to those of our Class A common stock.

The trading prices for technology companies have been highly volatile, especially recently due to rising interest rates, inflation, and the uncertain macroeconomic environment, which may reduce our ability to access capital on favorable terms or at all. In addition, a recession, depression, or other sustained adverse market event could adversely affect the value of our Class A common stock as well as our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects. Because our decision to issue securities or engage in other financing arrangements in the future will depend on numerous considerations, including factors beyond our control, we cannot predict or estimate the amount, timing, or nature of any future issuances of debt or equity securities or other financing arrangements. As a result, our stockholders bear the risk of future issuances of debt or equity securities or other financing arrangements reducing the value of our Class A common stock and diluting their interests.

You will experience immediate and substantial dilution in the net tangible book value of the shares of common stock you purchase in this offering.

The initial public offering price of our Class A common stock is substantially higher than the pro forma net tangible book value per share of our Class A common stock immediately after the closing of this offering. If you purchase shares of our Class A common stock in this offering, you will suffer immediate dilution of $    per share, representing the difference between our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after giving effect to the sale of Class A common stock in

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this offering, the RSU Net Settlement, after withholding      shares to satisfy estimated tax withholding and remittance obligations of $     million (based on the assumed initial offering price set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and an assumed   % tax withholding rate), and the assumed initial public offering price of $    per share, the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus. See the section titled “Dilution.”

We do not intend to pay dividends for the foreseeable future and, as a result, your ability to achieve a return on your investment will depend on appreciation in the price of our Class A common stock.

We have never declared or paid any cash dividends on our capital stock, and we do not intend to pay any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Any determination to pay dividends in the future will be at the discretion of our board of directors. In addition, our ability to pay dividends may be further restricted by agreements we may enter into in the future. Accordingly, you may need to rely on sales of our Class A common stock after price appreciation, which may never occur, as the only way to realize any future gains on your investment.

We are an “emerging growth company,” and the reduced reporting and disclosure requirements applicable to emerging growth companies could make our Class A common stock less attractive to investors.

We are an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the JOBS Act, and we may take advantage of certain exemptions from various reporting requirements that are applicable to other public companies that are not “emerging growth companies,” including the auditor attestation requirements of Section 404, reduced disclosure obligations regarding executive compensation in our periodic reports and proxy statements, and exemptions from the requirements of holding a nonbinding advisory vote on executive compensation and stockholder approval of any golden parachute payments not previously approved. Pursuant to Section 107 of the JOBS Act, as an emerging growth company, we have elected to use the extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards until those standards would otherwise apply to private companies. As a result, our consolidated financial statements may not be comparable to the financial statements of issuers who are required to comply with the effective dates for new or revised accounting standards that are applicable to public companies, which may make our Class A common stock less attractive to investors. In addition, if we cease to be an emerging growth company, we will no longer be able to use the extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards.

We will remain an emerging growth company until the first to occur of: (i) the last day of the year following the fifth anniversary of the closing of this offering; (ii) the last day of the first year in which our annual gross revenue is $1.235 billion or more; (iii) the date on which we have, during the previous rolling three-year period, issued more than $1.0 billion in non-convertible debt securities; and (iv) the date we qualify as a “large accelerated filer,” with at least $700 million of equity securities held by non-affiliates.

We cannot predict if investors will find our Class A common stock less attractive if we choose to rely on these exemptions. For example, if we do not adopt a new or revised accounting standard, our future results of operations may not be as comparable to the results of operations of certain other companies in our industry that adopted such standards. If some investors find our Class A common stock less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our Class A common stock, and our stock price may be more volatile.

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We will incur increased costs as a result of operating as a public company, and our management will be required to devote substantial time to compliance with our public company responsibilities and corporate governance practices.

As a public company, we will incur significant legal, accounting, and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company, which we expect to further increase after we are no longer an “emerging growth company.” The Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the listing requirements of the securities exchange on which our Class A common stock trades, and other applicable securities rules and regulations impose various requirements on public companies. Our management and other personnel will devote a substantial amount of time to compliance with these requirements. Moreover, these rules and regulations will increase our legal and financial compliance costs and will make some activities more time-consuming and costly. We cannot predict or estimate the amount of additional costs we will incur as a public company or the specific timing of such costs.

Anti-takeover provisions in our charter documents and under Delaware law could make an acquisition of our company more difficult, limit attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management, and limit the market price of our Class A common stock.

Provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated bylaws, as they will be in effect immediately prior to the closing of this offering, may have the effect of preventing a change of control or changes in our management. Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated bylaws will include provisions that:

These provisions may frustrate or prevent any attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management by making it more difficult for stockholders to replace members of our board of directors, which is responsible for appointing the members of our management. In addition, because

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we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, which generally, subject to certain exceptions, prohibits a Delaware corporation from engaging in any of a broad range of business combinations with any “interested” stockholder for a period of three years following the date on which the stockholder became an “interested” stockholder. Any of the foregoing provisions could limit the price that investors might be willing to pay in the future for shares of our Class A common stock, and they could deter potential acquirers of our company, thereby reducing the likelihood that you would receive a premium for your shares of our Class A common stock in an acquisition.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation will designate the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware and the federal district courts of the United States of America as the exclusive forums for certain disputes between us and our stockholders, which will restrict our stockholders’ ability to choose the judicial forum for disputes with us or our directors, officers, or employees.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, to be effective immediately prior to the closing of this offering, will provide that the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware (or, if and only if the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware lacks subject matter jurisdiction, any state court located within the State of Delaware or, if and only if all such state courts lack subject matter jurisdiction, the federal district court for the District of Delaware) is the sole and exclusive forum for the following types of actions or proceedings under Delaware statutory or common law: (i) any derivative action or proceeding brought on our behalf; (ii) any action or proceeding asserting a claim of breach of a fiduciary duty owed by any of our current or former directors, officers, or other employees to us or our stockholders, or any action asserting a claim for aiding and abetting such breach of fiduciary duty; (iii) any action or proceeding asserting a claim against us or any of our current or former directors, officers or other employees arising out of or pursuant to any provision of the Delaware General Corporation Law, our amended and restated certificate of incorporation or our amended and restated bylaws; (iv) any action or proceeding to interpret, apply, enforce or determine the validity of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation or our amended and restated bylaws (including any right, obligation, or remedy thereunder); (v) any action or proceeding as to which the Delaware General Corporation Law confers jurisdiction to the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware; and (vi) any action or proceeding asserting a claim against us or any of our current or former directors, officers, or other employees that is governed by the internal affairs doctrine, in all cases to the fullest extent permitted by law and subject to the court’s having personal jurisdiction over the indispensable parties named as defendants. This provision would not apply to suits brought to enforce a duty or liability created by the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act, or any other claim for which the federal courts have exclusive jurisdiction. In addition, to prevent having to litigate claims in multiple jurisdictions and the threat of inconsistent or contrary rulings by different courts, among other considerations, our amended and restated certificate of incorporation to be effective immediately prior to the closing of this offering will provide that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, to the fullest extent permitted by law, the federal district courts of the United States of America will be the exclusive forum for resolving any complaint asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act, including all causes of action asserted against any defendant named in such complaint. For the avoidance of doubt, this provision is intended to benefit and may be enforced by us, our officers and directors, the underwriters to any offering giving rise to such complaint, and any other professional entity whose profession gives authority to a statement made by that person or entity and who has prepared or certified any part of the documents underlying the offering. However, as Section 22 of the Securities Act creates concurrent jurisdiction for federal and state courts over all suits brought to enforce any duty or liability created by the Securities Act or the rules and regulations thereunder, there is uncertainty as to whether a court would enforce such provision. Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, to be effective immediately prior to the closing of this offering, will further provide that any person or entity holding, owning or otherwise acquiring any interest in any of

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our securities shall be deemed to have notice of and consented to these provisions. Investors also cannot waive compliance with the federal securities laws and the rules and regulations thereunder.

These choice of forum provisions may limit a stockholder’s ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum that it finds favorable for disputes with us or our directors, officers, or other employees. While the Delaware courts have determined that such choice of forum provisions are facially valid, a stockholder may nevertheless seek to bring such a claim arising under the Securities Act against us, our directors, officers, or other employees in a venue other than in the federal district courts of the United States of America. In such instance, we would expect to vigorously assert the validity and enforceability of the exclusive forum provisions of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation. This may require significant additional costs associated with resolving such action in other jurisdictions and we cannot assure you that the provisions will be enforced by a court in those other jurisdictions. If a court were to find either exclusive-forum provision in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we may incur further significant additional costs associated with resolving the dispute in other jurisdictions, all of which could harm our business.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or publish unfavorable or inaccurate research about our business, the market price and trading volume of our Class A common stock could decline.

The market price and trading volume of our Class A common stock following the closing of this offering will be heavily influenced by the way analysts interpret our financial information and other disclosures. We do not have control over these analysts. If few securities analysts commence coverage of us, or if industry analysts cease coverage of us, our stock price would be negatively affected. If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or reports about our business, downgrade our Class A common stock, or publish negative reports about our business, our stock price would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease coverage of us or fail to publish reports on us regularly, demand for our Class A common stock could decrease, which might cause our stock price to decline and could decrease the trading volume of our Class A common stock.

General Risks

We have identified a material weakness in our internal control over financial reporting. If we are unable to demonstrate the effectiveness of our remediation measures, or if we identify additional material weaknesses in the future, our ability to produce timely and accurate financial statements or comply with applicable laws and regulations could be adversely affected.

We identified a material weakness in our internal control over financial reporting, as described below. A material weakness is a deficiency, or a combination of deficiencies, in internal control over financial reporting such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of our financial statements would not be prevented or detected on a timely basis. Specifically, our accounting policies did not appropriately evaluate the accounting implications of the sale of commissions receivable, which transaction was complex and non-routine from an accounting perspective. We have since modified our accounting policies and procedures to properly reflect the accounting implications of such transaction; however, if those policies and related procedures are not effective, we may be subject to similar risks in the future with respect to accounting for similar complex, non-routine transactions.

While we have implemented remediation measures, including by modifying certain accounting policies and procedures described above and documenting internal controls related to such transactions, we must demonstrate sustained effectiveness of these controls over time before the material weakness can be considered fully remediated.

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There can be no assurance that our remediation efforts will be successful in all respects, or that additional material weaknesses will not be identified in the future. If we fail to maintain effective internal control over financial reporting, it could impair our ability to manage our business effectively, delay our financial reporting, and potentially result in a loss of investor confidence, which could negatively impact the trading price of our Class A common stock and our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

As a result of being a public company, we are obligated to develop and maintain proper and effective internal control over financial reporting, and any failure to maintain the adequacy of these internal controls may adversely affect investor confidence in our company and, as a result, the value of our Class A common stock.

We are required, pursuant to Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act to furnish a report by management on, among other things, the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting for the year ending December 31, 2027. This assessment will need to include disclosure of any material weaknesses identified by our management in our internal control over financial reporting. In addition, our independent registered public accounting firm will be required to attest to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting in our first annual report required to be filed with the SEC following the date we are no longer an “emerging growth company.” We have recently commenced the costly and challenging process of compiling the system and processing documentation necessary to perform the evaluation needed to comply with Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, or Section 404, but we may not be able to complete our evaluation, testing, and any required remediation in a timely fashion once initiated. Our compliance with Section 404 will require that we incur substantial expenses and expend significant management efforts. Although we currently have an internal audit group, we will need to hire additional accounting and financial staff with appropriate public company experience and compile the system and process documentation necessary to perform the evaluation needed to comply with Section 404 and to remediate our material weakness described above.

During the evaluation and testing process of our internal controls, if we identify one or more material weaknesses in our internal control over financial reporting, we will be unable to certify that our internal control over financial reporting is effective. We may identify material weaknesses or significant deficiencies in our internal control over financial reporting in the future. Any failure to maintain internal control over financial reporting could severely inhibit our ability to accurately report our financial condition or results of operations. If we are unable to conclude that our internal control over financial reporting is effective, or if our independent registered public accounting firm determines we have a material weakness or significant deficiency in our internal control over financial reporting, or if we are unable to remediate our material weakness described above, we could lose investor confidence in the accuracy and completeness of our financial reports, the market price of our Class A common stock could decline, and we could be subject to sanctions or investigations by the SEC or other regulatory authorities. Failure to remedy any material weakness in our internal control over financial reporting, or to implement or maintain other effective control systems required of public companies, could also restrict our future access to the capital markets.

We and our employees have and may continue to be subject to claims alleging violations of our employees’ contractual obligations to their prior employers. These claims may be costly to defend, and if we do not successfully do so, our business could be harmed.

Many of our employees were previously employed at current or potential competitors. Although we have processes to ensure that our employees do not use proprietary information or disclose confidential information from their prior employer in their work for us or otherwise violate their contractual post-employment obligations such as customer and employee non-solicits, we or our employees may still in the future become subject to claims alleging such violations. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. If we fail in defending such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel. A loss of key

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personnel or their work product could negatively impact our business. Even if we are successful in defending against these claims, litigation efforts are costly, time-consuming, and a significant distraction to management.

Our ability to use our net operating losses to offset future taxable income may be subject to certain limitations.

As of    , 2025, we had net operating loss, or NOL, carryforwards for U.S. federal and state income tax purposes of $    and $    , respectively, which may be available to offset taxable income in the future, and portions of which expire in various years beginning in    for U.S. federal purposes and    for state purposes if not utilized. Under current law, U.S. federal NOLs incurred in taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017 may be carried forward indefinitely, but such federal NOLs are permitted to be used in any taxable year to offset only up to 80% of taxable income in such year. A lack of future taxable income would adversely affect our ability to utilize certain of these NOLs before they expire. In addition, under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, or the Code, a corporation that undergoes an “ownership change” (as defined under Section 382 of the Code and applicable Treasury Regulations; generally a greater than 50 percentage point change (by value) in its equity ownership by certain stockholders over a three-year period) is subject to limitations on its ability to utilize its pre-change NOLs to offset future taxable income. We have experienced ownership changes under Section 382 of the Code in the past, and we may experience additional ownership changes in the future (including, potentially, in connection with this initial public offering) which could affect our ability to utilize our NOLs to offset our income. Similar provisions of state tax law may also apply. Furthermore, our ability to utilize NOLs of companies that we have acquired or may acquire in the future also may be subject to limitations. There is also a risk that due to regulatory changes, such as suspensions on the use of NOLs or other unforeseen reasons, our existing NOLs could expire or otherwise be unavailable to reduce future income tax liabilities, including for state tax purposes. For these reasons, we may not be able to utilize a material portion of the NOLs reflected on our balance sheet, which could potentially result in increased future tax liability to us and could adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition.

We may be subject to additional tax liabilities, including as a result of changes in tax laws or regulations, which could adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

We are subject to taxes in U.S. federal, state, local, and non-U.S. jurisdictions. The amount of taxes we pay in different jurisdictions depends on the application of the relevant tax laws to our business activities, the relative amounts of income before taxes in the various jurisdictions in which we operate, the application of new or revised tax laws, the interpretation of existing tax laws and policies, the outcome of current and future tax audits, examinations, or administrative appeals, our ability to realize our deferred tax assets, and our ability to operate our business in a manner consistent with our corporate structure and intercompany arrangements.

The tax regimes to which we are subject or under which we operate, including income and non-income taxes, are unsettled in certain respects and may be subject to significant change. Changes in tax laws or regulations, or changes in interpretations of existing laws and regulations, could materially affect our financial condition and results of operations. For example, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, or the Tax Act, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, and the Inflation Reduction Act made many significant changes to the U.S. tax laws. Effective January 1, 2022, the Tax Act eliminated the option to deduct research and development expenses for tax purposes in the year incurred and instead requires taxpayers to capitalize and subsequently amortize such expenses over five years for research activities conducted in the United States and over 15 years for research activities conducted outside the United States. In recent years, many such changes have been made, and changes are likely to continue to occur in the future. It cannot be predicted whether, when, in what

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form or with what effective dates tax laws, regulations, and rulings may be enacted, promulgated or issued, which could result in an increase in our or our shareholders’ tax liability or require changes in the manner in which we operate in order to minimize or mitigate any adverse effects of changes in tax law.

The determination of our overall provision for income and other taxes is inherently uncertain because it requires significant judgment with respect to complex transactions and calculations. As a result, fluctuations in our tax liabilities may differ materially from amounts recorded in our financial statements and could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations in the periods for which such determination is made.

Our management team has limited experience managing a public company.

Most members of our management team have limited experience managing a publicly traded company, interacting with public company investors, and complying with the increasingly complex laws pertaining to public companies. Our management team may not successfully or efficiently manage our transition to being a public company that is subject to significant regulatory oversight and reporting obligations under the federal securities laws and the continuous scrutiny of securities analysts and investors. These new obligations and constituents will require significant attention from our senior management and could divert their attention away from the day-to-day management of our business, which could harm our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

Climate risks, including the risk of an economic crisis, risks associated with the physical effects of climate change, and disruptions caused by the transition to a low-carbon economy, could adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Concerns regarding the effects of climate change on the global environment have led governmental bodies to adopt laws and regulations aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and other measures to mitigate the impact of climate change. As a result, the global business community has increased its political and social awareness surrounding the issue. At various times, the U.S. Congress, state legislatures, and federal and state regulatory agencies have adopted or proposed legal requirements and other initiatives to combat climate change. Climate change legislation or regulation could cause us to incur increased costs and capital expenditures to comply, which may impact our financial condition and operating performance.

In addition, the U.S. Federal Reserve has in the past identified climate change as a potential risk to the stability of the financial system. It also reported that a gradual change in investor sentiment regarding climate risk introduces the possibility of abrupt tipping points or significant swings in sentiment, which could create unpredictable follow-on effects in financial markets. If this occurred, not only would we be negatively impacted by the general economic decline, but a drop in the stock market affecting our stock price could negatively impact our ability to grow through mergers and acquisitions financed using our common stock.

Moreover, if our carriers fail or withdraw from offering certain lines of insurance because of large payouts related to climate change, overall risk-taking capital capacity could be negatively affected, which could reduce our ability to place certain lines of insurance and, as a result, reduce our revenue and profitability.

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SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This prospectus contains forward-looking statements about us and our industry that involve substantial risks and uncertainties. All statements other than statements of historical facts contained in this prospectus, including statements regarding our future financial condition or results of operations, business strategy and plans, and objectives of management for future operations are forward-looking statements. In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements because they contain words such as “anticipate,” “believe,” “continue,” “could,” “estimate,” “expect,” “intend,” “may,” “plan,” “potential,” “predict,” “project,” “should,” “target,” “toward,” “will,” “would,” or the negative of these words or other similar terms or expressions. These forward-looking statements include statements concerning the following:

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We caution you that the foregoing list may not contain all of the forward-looking statements made in this prospectus.

You should not rely on forward-looking statements as predictions of future events. We have based the forward-looking statements contained in this prospectus primarily on our current expectations and projections about future events and trends that we believe may affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations. The outcome of the events described in these forward-looking statements is subject to risks, uncertainties, and other factors described in the section titled “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this prospectus. Moreover, we operate in a very competitive and rapidly changing environment. New risks and uncertainties emerge from time to time, and it is not possible for us to predict all risks and uncertainties that could have an impact on the forward-looking statements contained in this prospectus. The results, events, and circumstances reflected in the forward-looking statements may not be achieved or occur, and actual results, events, or circumstances could differ materially from those described in the forward-looking statements.

In addition, statements that “we believe” and similar statements reflect our beliefs and opinions on the relevant subject. These statements are based on information available to us as of the date of this prospectus. While we believe such information provides a reasonable basis for these statements, such information may be limited or incomplete. Our statements should not be read to indicate that we have conducted an exhaustive inquiry into, or review of, all relevant information. These statements are inherently uncertain, and investors are cautioned not to unduly rely on these statements.

The forward-looking statements made in this prospectus relate only to events as of the date on which the statements are made. We undertake no obligation to update any forward-looking statements made in this prospectus to reflect events or circumstances after the date of this prospectus or to reflect new information, actual results, revised expectations, or the occurrence of unanticipated events, except as required by law. We may not actually achieve the plans, intentions, or expectations disclosed in our forward-looking statements, and you should not place undue reliance on our forward-looking statements. Our forward-looking statements do not reflect the potential impact of any future acquisitions, mergers, dispositions, joint ventures, or investments.

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MARKET, INDUSTRY, AND OTHER DATA

This prospectus contains statistical data, estimates, forecasts, and information concerning our industry, including the market size and growth of the markets in which we participate, that are based on independent industry publications or other publicly available information, as well as other information based on our internal sources. While we believe the industry and market data included in this prospectus are reliable and are based on reasonable assumptions, these data involve many assumptions and limitations, and you are cautioned not to give undue weight to these estimates. We have not independently verified the accuracy or completeness of the data contained in these industry publications and other publicly available information. The industry in which we operate is subject to a high degree of uncertainty and risk due to a variety of factors, including those described in the sections titled “Risk Factors” and “Special Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements.” These and other factors could cause results to differ materially from those expressed in the projections and estimates made by the independent third parties and us.

The sources of certain statistical data, estimates, and forecasts contained in this prospectus include:

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USE OF PROCEEDS

We estimate that we will receive net proceeds from this offering of approximately $     million (or approximately $     million if the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares is exercised in full) based on an assumed initial public offering price of $     per share, the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

The principal purposes of this offering are to increase our capitalization and financial flexibility and create a public market for our Class A common stock. We intend to use a portion of the net proceeds we received from this offering to pay $    million of our anticipated tax withholding and remittance obligations related to the RSU Net Settlement. In connection with the RSU Net Settlement, assuming (i) the fair market value of our Class B common stock at the time of settlement will be equal to the assumed initial public offering price per share of $     , the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and (ii) an assumed      % tax withholding rate, we estimate that these tax withholding and remittance obligations on the RSU Net Settlement will be $     million in the aggregate.

Each $1.00 increase (decrease) in the assumed initial public offering price of $     per share, the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase (decrease) the net proceeds to us from this offering by approximately $     million, assuming the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same, and after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Similarly, each increase (decrease) of 1.0 million shares in the number of shares of Class A common stock offered by us would increase (decrease) the net proceeds to us from this offering by approximately $     million, assuming the assumed initial public offering price per share remains the same, and after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

Each $1.00 increase (decrease) in the assumed initial public offering price per share of $     , which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, assuming no change in the assumed settlement date or applicable tax withholding rate, would increase (decrease) the amount we would be required to pay to satisfy our tax withholding and remittance obligations described above by approximately $     million. In addition, each 1.0% increase (decrease) in the tax withholding rate, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price per share, would increase (decrease) the amount of tax withholding and remittance obligations described above by approximately $     million.

We also intend to use the remaining net proceeds we receive from this offering for general corporate purposes, including working capital, operating expenses, and capital expenditures. We cannot specify with certainty all of the particular uses for the remaining net proceeds to us from this offering. We may also use a portion of the remaining net proceeds for the acquisitions of, or strategic investments in, complementary businesses, products, services, or technologies. However, we do not have any agreements or commitments to enter into any material acquisitions or investments at this time. We will have broad discretion over how we use the net proceeds from this offering. Pending the use of the proceeds from this offering as described above, we intend to invest the net proceeds from the offering that are not used as described above in investment-grade, interest-bearing instruments such as money market funds, corporate notes and bonds, certificates of deposit, commercial paper, and guaranteed obligations of the U.S. government.

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DIVIDEND POLICY

We have never declared or paid cash dividends on our capital stock. We currently intend to retain all available funds and future earnings, if any, to fund the development and expansion of our business, and we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Any future determination regarding the declaration and payment of dividends, if any, will be at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on then-existing conditions, including our financial condition, results of operations, contractual restrictions, capital requirements, business prospects, and other factors our board of directors may deem relevant. Additionally, our ability to pay dividends may be further restricted by agreements we may enter into in the future.

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CAPITALIZATION

The following table sets forth our cash, cash equivalents, and investments and our capitalization as of     , 2025 on:

The pro forma as adjusted information below is illustrative only, and our capitalization following the closing of this offering will be adjusted based on, among other things, the actual initial public offering price and other terms of this offering determined at pricing, the actual tax withholding rates, as well as the actual amount of RSUs settled in connection with this offering. You should read this information together with the section titled “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and our consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus.

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The number of shares of our Class A common stock and Class B common stock that will be outstanding after the closing of this offering is based on no shares of our Class A common stock and      shares of our Class B common stock (including shares of our redeemable convertible preferred stock on an as converted basis and after giving effect to the RSU Net Settlement, after withholding      shares to satisfy estimated tax withholding and remittance obligations of $     million (based on the assumed initial offering price set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and an assumed      % tax withholding rate) outstanding as of      , 2025, and excludes:

Our 2025 Plan and 2025 ESPP provide for annual automatic increases in the number of shares reserved thereunder. See the section titled “Executive Compensation—Employee Benefit and Stock Plans” for additional information.

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DILUTION

If you invest in our Class A common stock in this offering, your ownership interest will be immediately diluted to the extent of the difference between the initial public offering price per share of Class A common stock and the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of Class A common stock immediately after the closing of this offering.

Our historical net tangible book deficit as of     , 2025 was $    million, or $    per share of common stock. Historical net tangible book deficit represents the amount of our total tangible assets less our total liabilities and redeemable convertible preferred stock, divided by the number of shares of common stock outstanding as of     , 2025.

Our pro forma net tangible book deficit as of     , 2025 was $    million, or $    per share. Pro forma net tangible book value per share represents the amount of our total tangible assets less our total liabilities, divided by the number of shares of our common stock outstanding as of     , 2025, after giving effect to (i) the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our redeemable convertible preferred stock, of which there were    shares outstanding as of     , 2025, into an equal number of shares of Class B common stock as if such conversion had occurred on     , 2025; and (ii) the net issuance of    shares of Class B common stock in connection with the RSU Net Settlement, after withholding    shares to satisfy estimated tax withholding and remittance obligations of $    million (based on the assumed initial public offering price of $    per share, the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and an assumed    % tax withholding rate).

After giving further effect to (i) our receipt of $    million in estimated net proceeds from the sale and issuance by us of shares of Class A common stock in this offering at an assumed initial public offering price of $    per share, the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us, and (ii) the use of proceeds and existing cash and cash equivalents to satisfy the assumed tax withholding and remittance obligations described above, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value as of     , 2025 would have been $     million, or $    per share. This amount represents an immediate increase in pro forma net tangible book value of $    per share to our existing stockholders and immediate dilution in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value of approximately $    per share to new investors purchasing shares of Class A common stock in this offering.

Dilution per share to new investors is determined by subtracting pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering from the initial public offering price per share paid by new investors. The following table illustrates this dilution (without giving effect to any exercise by the underwriters of their option to purchase additional shares):

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The dilution information discussed above is illustrative only and may change based on, among other things, the actual initial public offering price and other terms of this offering, the actual tax withholding rates, as well as the actual amount of RSUs settled in connection with this offering. Each $1.00 increase (decrease) in the assumed initial public offering price of $    per share, the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase (decrease) our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering by approximately $    per share, and increase (decrease) the dilution in the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share to new investors by approximately $    per share, in each case, assuming that the number of shares of Class A common stock offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Each increase (decrease) of 1.0 million shares in the number of shares of Class A common stock offered by us would increase (decrease) our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after the closing of this offering by approximately $    per share and increase (decrease) the dilution to investors participating in this offering by approximately $    per share, in each case assuming that the assumed initial public offering price remains the same, and after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

If the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares in full, the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value after the offering would be $    per share and the dilution per share to new investors would be $    per share, in each case assuming an initial public offering price of $    per share, the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus.

The following table summarizes, on the pro forma as adjusted basis described above, as of     , 2025, the differences between the number of shares of our Class B common stock purchased from us by our existing stockholders and our Class A common stock purchased from us by new investors purchasing shares in this offering, the total consideration paid to us in cash, the average price per share paid by existing stockholders for shares of common stock issued prior to the closing of this offering, and the price to be paid by new investors for shares of Class A common stock in this offering. The calculation below is based on the assumed initial public offering estimated price of $    per share, the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of the prospectus, before deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

If the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares in full, our existing stockholders would own    %, and the investors purchasing shares of our common stock in this offering would own    % of the total number of shares of our Class A common stock outstanding immediately after the closing of this offering.

The number of shares of our Class A common stock and Class B common stock that will be outstanding after this offering is based on no shares of our Class A common stock and      shares of our Class B common stock (including shares of our redeemable convertible preferred stock on an as-converted basis and after giving effect to the RSU Net Settlement, after withholding     shares to satisfy estimated tax withholding and remittance obligations of $     million

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(based on the assumed initial offering price set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and an assumed     % tax withholding rate)) outstanding as of      , 2025, and excludes:

Our 2025 Plan and 2025 ESPP provide for annual automatic increases in the number of shares reserved thereunder. See the section titled “Executive Compensation—Employee Benefit and Stock Plans” for additional information.

To the extent any outstanding options are exercised, or any outstanding RSUs settle, or new stock options or RSUs are issued under our equity incentive plans, or we issue additional equity or convertible debt securities in the future, there will be further dilution to investors participating in this offering. If all outstanding options and RSUs under our 2016 Plan as of the date of this prospectus were exercised or settled, then our existing stockholders, including the holders of these securities would own approximately    % and our new investors would own approximately    % of the total number of shares of our Class A common stock and Class B common stock outstanding on the closing of this offering. In addition, we may choose to raise additional capital because of market conditions or strategic considerations, even if we believe that we have sufficient funds for our current or future operating plans. If we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, the issuance of these securities could result in further dilution to our stockholders.

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MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

Overview

Ethos is a technology company transforming the life insurance industry. We have built a vertically integrated technology platform that makes life insurance accessible, affordable, and transparent for everyone. Since inception, we have activated approximately    policies, and as of December 31, 2024, we had over 10,000 active selling agents and six active carriers on our platform. Through our three-sided technology platform, we serve a growing ecosystem of consumers, agents, and carriers, each of which benefits from the scale, ease-of-use, and efficiency of our platform. This creates strong network effects that drive our continued growth. We serve the following constituents through our digital platform:

Our technology platform is fully digital and vertically integrated. We simplify the insurance value chain from distribution to underwriting, activation, payments, and administration. Combining key elements of the insurance sales and administrative process into a singular platform enables us to build insurance products quickly, dynamically adjust underwriting and pricing, and rapidly iterate to deliver a delightful consumer and agent experience.

Our platform makes the application process faster and more accessible for consumers and agents while reducing errors, including by validating disclosures against third-party data in real-time. Our proprietary underwriting engine leverages predictive and real-time data acquired with the consent of the applicant to create a bespoke information graph that allows us to instantly assess risk and deliver quick, competitively priced policies with high approval rates. Once issued, our cloud-native policy administration system provides consumers with seamless servicing and billing. The unified, end-to-end nature of our platform enables us to collect and analyze granular data across the entire consumer and agent journey. We then identify patterns across cohorts to continuously optimize our underwriting and improve conversion and platform usability.

Our technology platform is extensible, demonstrated by our ability to launch and scale new life insurance and estate planning products. This has enabled us to expand our offerings from just one product in 2019 to ten as of December 31, 2024. We have launched multiple Term Life Insurance and Whole Life Insurance products, Indexed Universal Life Insurance and Accidental Death Insurance, as well as Wills & Estate Planning. As a result, we have achieved significant scale with broad demographic and geographic distribution. We have activated approximately    policies, and these consumers come from a wide range of educational backgrounds, income levels, and ages, consistent with our mission of democratizing access to life insurance. Our technology platform continuously

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improves as we scale and collect data, which further refines underwriting accuracy, pricing efficiency, and our platform engagement strategy to create durable network effects.

While we are in the early stages of capturing our market opportunity, we have made substantial progress in revolutionizing life insurance. Our key milestones include:

As of December 31, 2024, we offered ten different types of products on our platform that we refer to as Term Life Insurance and Other Products. Term Life Insurance policies offer coverage for a specified period, with a benefit paid to the designated beneficiary or beneficiaries if the insured passes away during the policy term. Our diverse portfolio of Term Life Insurance products accommodates a broad range of applicants, spanning various ages, health classifications, and policy sizes, enabling us to serve a wide segment of the U.S. population.

Other Products include Whole Life Insurance, Indexed Universal Life Insurance, Accidental Death Insurance, and Wills & Estate Planning. Other Products allow us to address a variety of consumer needs ranging from Whole Life Insurance, to additional user protection beyond Term Life Insurance, to wills and estate planning.

Our Financial Model

We generate substantially all of our revenue from the expected lifetime commissions for activated policies. We receive such commission payments from the issuing carrier. Our products exhibit different persistency estimates, offer different coverage amounts, and are designed to serve different user demographics across various age, health, and wealth bands, resulting in different financial profiles. Our products may be sold through our DTC or third-party channels. After a policy is activated, we have no material additional or recurring performance obligations to the carrier.

Our commissions for an activated policy are based on the commission rate, which is a percentage of the policy’s annual premium. Commission rates primarily vary by insurance product, policy duration, and product risk class. They are defined in our carrier contracts and reviewed by carriers on an annual basis. Commission rates have generally been stable or have increased as we have scaled, driven in part by the value we provide carriers by helping them efficiently acquire consumers, manage risk, and administer activated policies.

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We generally receive commissions over the life of an activated policy. Carriers pay us the majority of a policy’s lifetime commissions in the first year following activation, after which we generally receive commission payments monthly for the life of the policy. However, we recognize as revenue the expected lifetime value of commissions upfront at the time the policy is activated.

We adjust the amount of lifetime expected commission revenue recognized at the time of a policy’s activation using a persistency estimate, which refers to a percentage estimating the likelihood that the policy will remain active throughout its term. We derive the persistency estimate for the policy using our observed persistency data applicable to that policy as well as relevant industry persistency data. Because persistency estimates are based on observed persistency data, such estimates differ by product type and based on whether a policy is sold directly to the consumer or through our third-party channel. Persistency estimates are reviewed by our actuarial, finance, and accounting teams, as well as externally by third-party experts, including our financial auditors, and are adjusted as needed on a quarterly basis based on changes to observed persistency data and, where applicable, industry persistency data.

If we adjust our persistency estimates for an activated policy during the policy term, we recognize an adjustment to revenue previously recorded for that difference. Observed persistency for policies of a particular product type changes over time as activated policies are terminated prior to the end of their terms. Policy terminations are primarily driven by either the consumer’s failure to pay or voluntary customer cancellations. From time to time, terminations may also result from findings in post-issue audits that we perform to validate digital underwriting information. Persistency has generally been stable or has improved on an individual product basis as we have enhanced our product experience and policy recommendation. However, we expect our persistency estimates to fluctuate in the future, including as we expand our product offerings, grow our carrier and agency relationships, and increase our activated policies.

For policies that are sold on our platform directly to consumers, we incur marketing as well as underwriting costs, and for policies that are sold through a third-party channel on our platform, we incur the costs of agent payments, as well as underwriting-related costs.

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GAAP Revenue vs. Cash Commissions

Carriers pay us the majority of a policy’s lifetime commissions in the first year following activation, after which we generally receive commission payments monthly for the life of the policy. If a policy is terminated within the first year, all or a portion of the commission received is repaid to the carrier. This results in a difference between the timing of revenue recognition and operating cash inflows from commission payments, as illustrated in the diagram below, which is subject to change based on factors such as product mix. On average, roughly 73% of expected lifetime commissions associated with an activated policy are collected as cash during the first year following policy activation, while 87% are collected as cash by the fifth year following activation.

We expect the percentage of lifetime commissions collected as cash in the first year following policy activation to fluctuate over time as we grow our activated policies and scale our business. See the section titled “Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Business—We have a limited history operating our business at its current scale, scope, and complexity, which makes it difficult to plan for future operations and growth initiatives and predict future results” for a discussion of certain factors that may impact the timing of our cash flows from commissions.

Agent Payments

For a policy sold through an agent, the total agent payment is a percentage of the policy’s first year premium. We generally pay such amount the day after the policy is activated. If the policy terminates within the first year following activation, we are entitled to recover all or a portion of the total agent payment.

Despite the actual timing of such agent payments, we recognize total agent payments in sales and marketing expense in the period of policy activation, net of the estimated amount that we expect to recover from agents in the first year after activation due to termination. We apply the same persistency used to recognize revenue for the policy in estimating this recovery amount. This may result in a difference between the timing of expense recognition for agent payments and the payment to or recoupment of cash associated with such agent payments. In a particular quarter during which a policy is activated, cash outflows for agent payments exceed expense recognized for those payments, since we receive any recouped cash amount of agent payments on a delayed basis. In addition, as with commission revenue, we similarly recognize adjustments to our operating expenses from time to time upon adjustments to estimated persistency for policies sold through agents.

We also offer agents production-based incentives and rewards that we may elect to use from time to time, which we also recognize in sales and marketing expense.

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Key Business Metrics and Non-GAAP Financial Measures

In addition to the measures presented in our consolidated financial statements, we use the following key business metrics and non-GAAP financial measures to help us evaluate our business, identify trends affecting our business, formulate business plans, and make strategic decisions.

Activated Policies. We define activated policies as the number of policies issued on our platform over a given period of measurement. Activated policies have increased over time as we have expanded our DTC and third-party channels and added product offerings with existing and new carriers.

The total number of activated policies in the year ended December 31, 2024 was 128,497, a 77% increase compared to the same period in 2023. The total number of activated policies in the year ended December 31, 2023 was 72,768.

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Average Revenue Per Unit. We define average revenue per unit, or ARPU, as our total GAAP revenue for a given period, divided by the total number of activated policies during the period.

ARPU, and therefore revenue, varies by product due to differences in premium amounts, negotiated commission rates, and persistency estimates. Premiums are influenced by factors such as policy duration, coverage amount, and risk level, all of which differ by product. As a result, changes in our product mix are the main driver of ARPU fluctuations over time.

Our Term Life Insurance products typically generate higher ARPU compared to Other Products, driven by a combination of higher commission rates and better persistency. While we sell Term Life Insurance products through both of our distribution channels, the majority of Term Life Insurance sales are made directly to consumers through our website. Additionally, Other Products are typically sold through our third-party channel, primarily through agents rather than DTC through our website. Our Term Life Insurance products generated revenue of $147 million and $204 million, accounting for 92% and 80% of our revenue for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2024, respectively. Other Products generated revenue of $12 million and $51 million, accounting for 8% and 20% of our revenue for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2024, respectively.

ARPU in the year ended December 31, 2024 was $1,984, compared to $2,195 in the prior year. This decrease was primarily due to higher revenue contribution in 2024 from Other Products.

Contribution Profit. We define Contribution Profit as our gross profit less sales and marketing expense, which includes agent payments and underwriting costs for non-activated policies, plus stock-based compensation related to our employees and overhead costs allocated to sales and marketing expense. Gross profit is defined as revenue less cost of revenue. Cost of revenue primarily consists of underwriting costs associated with activated policies. Overhead costs allocated to sales and marketing expense include professional fees, technology expenses, and other related costs. Contribution Margin is calculated by dividing Contribution Profit for a period by revenue for the same period.

Contribution Profit is primarily impacted by revenue as well as marketing costs, which consists of advertising spend on our website and agent payments for policies sold through our third-party channel. Both ARPU and marketing costs are impacted by changes in product and distribution channel mix. As a result, we expect Contribution Profit and Contribution Margin to fluctuate over time as we expand our product offerings and experience changes in distribution channel mix across periods.

Contribution Profit increased from $51 million to $104 million from 2023 to 2024, representing a Contribution Margin improvement from 32% to 41%. The increase in Contribution Profit and

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Contribution Margin from 2023 to 2024 was primarily due to higher gross profit and lower sales and marketing expense as a percentage of revenue. We expect Contribution Profit and Contribution Margin to fluctuate in the near term as we continue to invest in the growth of our business, and improve over the long term as we achieve greater scale and drive efficiency through operational improvements.

We use Contribution Profit and Contribution Margin to evaluate our operating performance. We believe that Contribution Profit and Contribution Margin provide useful information to investors about our business and financial performance because they offer insight into how efficiently we activate new policies and ultimately revenue by accounting for the direct expenses associated with those activated policies.

Contribution Profit and Contribution Margin should not be considered as alternatives to gross profit and gross margin, or any other measure of financial performance calculated and presented in accordance with GAAP. There are a number of limitations related to the use of Contribution Profit and Contribution Margin rather than gross profit and gross margin, which are the most directly comparable GAAP measures. They do not reflect our financial results in accordance with GAAP as they do not include the impact of certain expenses that are reflected in our consolidated statements of operations. In addition, other companies, including companies in our industry, may calculate Contribution Profit differently, which reduces its usefulness as a comparative measure. For these reasons, our Contribution Profit and Contribution Margin should be considered alongside, not as substitutes for or in isolation from, GAAP-based financial measures.

The following table provides a reconciliation of gross profit to Contribution Profit:

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Adjusted EBITDA. We define Adjusted EBITDA as our net income excluding interest expense, interest income net, income tax expense, depreciation and amortization, and stock-based compensation expense as set forth in the table below. Adjusted EBITDA Margin is calculated by dividing Adjusted EBITDA for a period by revenue for the same period. We use Adjusted EBITDA and Adjusted EBITDA Margin to assess performance, to inform the preparation of our annual operating budget and quarterly forecasts, to evaluate the effectiveness of our business strategies, and to assist our board of directors in monitoring our business and financial performance. We believe that Adjusted EBITDA and Adjusted EBITDA Margin provide useful information to investors about our business and financial performance, enhance their overall understanding of our past performance and future prospects, including by providing consistency and comparability with our past financial performance, and allow for greater transparency with respect to measures used by our management in their financial and operational decision making. In addition, we believe Adjusted EBITDA is widely used by investors, securities analysts, and other parties in evaluating companies in our industry as a measure of operational performance.

Adjusted EBITDA increased from $7 million to $58 million from 2023 to 2024, representing an Adjusted EBITDA Margin improvement from 4% to 23%. The increase in Adjusted EBITDA and Adjusted EBITDA Margin from 2023 to 2024 was primarily due to the growth in net income. We expect Adjusted EBITDA and Adjusted EBITDA Margin to fluctuate in the near term as we continue to invest in our business and improve over the long term as we achieve greater scale in our business and efficiencies in our operating expenses.

Adjusted EBITDA and Adjusted EBITDA Margin should not be considered as alternatives to net income and net income as a percentage of revenue, or any other measure of financial performance calculated and presented in accordance with GAAP. There are a number of limitations related to the use of Adjusted EBITDA and Adjusted EBITDA Margin rather than net income and net income as a percentage of revenue, which are the most directly comparable GAAP measures.

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The following table provides a reconciliation of Adjusted EBITDA to net income for the periods presented:

In addition, other companies, including companies in our industry, may calculate Adjusted EBITDA differently, which reduces its usefulness as a comparative measure. Because of these limitations, our Adjusted EBITDA and Adjusted EBITDA Margin should be considered in addition to, not as substitutes for, or in isolation from, measures prepared in accordance with GAAP.

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Key Factors Affecting our Performance

Cost-Effectively Activating New Policies. Our continued growth is dependent on cost-effectively activating new policies. We reach consumers by investing in direct marketing and agent payments. Our direct marketing is diversified and includes affiliate marketing, search engine marketing, social media advertising, TV advertising, and others. We dynamically adjust our direct marketing on a daily basis to optimize our acquisition strategy. Spending to activate a new policy is governed by our payback period, which we define as the number of months it takes for the cash commissions received to offset advertising spend and agent payments, as well as underwriting, sales team and payment processing costs. As of December 31, 2024, our average payback period was within two months.

We assess the effectiveness of agents by monitoring their sales productivity over time. The chart below reflects the cumulative policies sold per agent by cohort, with each cohort consisting of all agents who sold their first policy on our platform in a given fiscal quarter. In turn, cohorts include agents who have ceased selling policies on our platform. Overall, agents within each cohort consistently become more productive, as demonstrated by the increase in cumulative activated policies sold per agent by cohort over time.

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Agent Recruitment and Retention. We onboard new agents to our platform primarily through our network of agencies. As such, it is critical that we maintain strong relationships with existing agencies, establish new relationships, and enhance the productivity of agents to support agent retention. We intend to continue investing in our platform to make it increasingly attractive to agencies and their agents, primarily by adding features and functionalities that help agencies recruit more agents, enhance agent efficiency, boost overall productivity, and improve the consumer experience.

Life Insurance Pricing. Life insurance pricing impacts purchasing and agent selling behavior. Pricing is primarily influenced by factors such as health, lifestyle, coverage amount, and policy type. Carriers may adjust pricing in response to shifts in mortality assumptions, interest rates, capital markets, reinsurance costs, inflation, and regulatory changes. We mitigate pricing risk through a diversified product portfolio and a broad mix of carriers, enabling us to offer competitive rates across a wide range of consumer profiles.

Product Mix. The composition of our product offerings, particularly the balance between Term Life Insurance and Other Products impacts our results of operations. For example, our Term Life Insurance products typically generate higher ARPU due to factors including higher persistency, commission rates, and coverage amounts. As we diversify and expand our product portfolio, ARPU may be impacted by the mix of products we offer and shifts in product demand. We intend to continue to strategically launch both Term Life Insurance and Other Products, prioritizing long-term Contribution Profit expansion.

Strategic Carrier Relationships. Maintaining our six active carrier relationships and establishing new carrier relationships are critical for our continued growth. For our top three carriers by distribution, who are also our longest tenured carriers, we were their largest source of life distribution in 2024. However, we still have significant opportunities to increase our share, as we accounted for a minority of these top three carriers’ life insurance premiums in 2024. Our existing carriers have a significant growth opportunity, as the life insurance market remains highly fragmented, with numerous carriers competing for market share. Beyond our current relationships, we intend to selectively work with new

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carriers, primarily to facilitate new product introductions and further diversify our positions within our existing carrier base.

Increasing Products on Our Platform. The breadth and diversity of our existing products are a key value proposition for both consumers and agents. Moreover, our platform is extensible, as demonstrated by our successful track record in launching and scaling new insurance and estate planning products. Our growing expertise in product launches, informed by our growing experience through numerous past product launches and continuous improvements in our third-party channel, has enhanced our efficiency. For instance, while it initially took 24 months to reach $20 million in run-rate annual premium with our Term Life Insurance product launched in 2019, a more recent product achieved the same milestone in just 15 months. We intend to continue investing in new product development, leveraging our increasing efficiency to drive further growth.

Persistency.  Our results of operations, including our revenue growth trends, are impacted by changes in our persistency estimates. Several factors have resulted in, and may in the future result in, fluctuations in our persistency estimates, including growth in activated policies, new carrier relationships, introductions of new products on our platform, changes in our product mix, and changes in observed persistency in the life insurance industry.

Operating Leverage. Our platform benefits from operating leverage, allowing our business to scale efficiently as we increase policy activations and launch new products. Several of our costs, including our general and administrative costs, are not directly tied to the number of activated policies in a given period. As a result, we generate more revenue relative to our cost base as we grow. Each incremental product launch also becomes more cost-effective, leveraging our robust underwriting capabilities, digital platform, and established distribution channels with minimal additional overhead.

Investment in Technology Platform. We have prioritized investments in automation, our data moat, and data analytics to optimize policy approvals and pricing while enriching the customer journey. Our commitment to digitizing the life insurance process is evident in our continued development of digital infrastructure, such as enhancing features on our website and in our agent portal. Our significant investment in proprietary technology is key to advancing our underwriting capabilities and may cause our operating results to fluctuate.

Seasonality. Seasonality can impact our activated policies patterns, influencing acquisition volume, costs, and conversion rates. The three months ended March 31 have historically been our strongest quarter of activated policies, as consumer demand for life insurance is elevated by factors such as annual financial planning cycles that typically occur post-New Year. During this period, digital marketing costs tend to be lower relative to other periods, allowing us to efficiently invest more in direct marketing.

Macroeconomic and Regulatory Trends. Macroeconomic factors, including a high interest rate environment, equity market returns, and a tight labor market impact the financial services and life insurance industries. Moreover, changes in the tax code (demand for insurance for tax planning purposes) or on capital reserving requirements (such as the approval of the principles-based reserving regime in 2017) impact the demand for the life insurance products we offer and the profitability of the carriers with whom we work. These macroeconomic and regulatory factors have the potential to affect demand for our underwriting and distribution services.

Components of Results of Operations

Revenue

We primarily generate revenue through commissions paid by carriers from policies activated and sold through our platform as well as from our provision of third-party administrator, or TPA, services for

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such policies. Our commission revenue is recognized upfront upon delivering new policyholders to carriers, and we have no material additional obligations post-sale. Our revenue for an activated policy includes both the first-year commission and renewal commissions, both of which require significant judgment in applying a persistency estimate. In future periods following policy activation, we recognize in-period adjustments in revenue as the applicable persistency estimates are updated.

Cost and Expenses

Our costs and expenses consist of sales and marketing, general and administrative expenses, technology costs, cost of revenue, and depreciation and amortization.

In the quarter in which this offering is completed, we expect to recognize approximately $    of stock-based compensation expense associated with the satisfaction of the liquidity event-based vesting condition for outstanding RSUs, for which the service-based vesting conditions have been fully or partially satisfied on or before the pricing of this offering. As such, we expect to incur a net loss for the quarter and year in which this offering is completed, primarily as a result of recognition of this stock-based compensation amount.

We also expect to incur additional stock-based compensation expense in future periods across certain of the costs and expenses categories below as additional RSUs meet their service-based vesting conditions, calculated using the accelerated attribution method for RSUs with a liquidity event-based vesting condition and using the straight-line method for RSUs granted following the closing of this offering and without a liquidity event-based vesting condition.

Sales and Marketing

Sales and marketing expenses primarily consists of our advertising expenses, agent payments, underwriting costs for non-activated policies, and overhead costs allocated on a headcount basis. Sales and marketing expenses also consist of salaries, stock-based compensation expense, employee benefits, bonuses, and commissions for sales and marketing employees and contractors.

We expect sales and marketing expenses to increase on an absolute dollar basis and vary from period to period as a percentage of revenue as we increase our sales and marketing personnel and continue to expand our customer engagement.

General and Administrative

General and administrative expenses consist of salaries, stock-based compensation expense, employee benefits, and bonuses for executive, finance, accounting, legal, human resources, actuarial, and administrative support. General and administrative expenses also include legal, accounting, other third-party professional services, other miscellaneous expenses, and overhead costs allocated on a headcount basis.

We expect general and administrative expenses to increase on an absolute dollar basis and vary from period to period as a percentage of revenue as we grow our operations and incur additional expenses associated with operating as a public company.

Technology (Exclusive of Amortization)

Technology (exclusive of amortization) expenses primarily consist of salaries, stock-based compensation expense, employee benefits, and bonuses for salaried employees and contractors engaged in the design, development, maintenance, and testing of our platform including our websites,

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mobile applications and other products. Technology expenses also include overhead costs allocated on a headcount basis but do not include amortization of capitalized website and software development costs.

We expect technology expenses to continue to increase on an absolute dollar basis and vary from period to period as a percent of revenue as we continue investing in our technology platform to support future growth.

Cost of Revenue

Cost of revenue represents the direct costs associated with fulfilling our obligations to our carriers for the activation of insurance policies and primarily consists of underwriting costs incurred by activated policies in the application process.

We expect that cost of revenue will increase on an absolute dollar basis for the foreseeable future as we continue to grow and be relatively consistent period to period as a percentage of revenue.

Depreciation and Amortization

Depreciation and amortization expenses relate to property and equipment, website and software development costs, as well as acquisition-related and other acquired intangible assets. We record depreciation and amortization using the straight-line method over the estimated useful life of the assets.

Interest Expense

Interest expense consists of interest costs associated with the sale of commissions receivable. For a portion of our policies, we have at times entered into arrangements in which we sell the rights to a portion of future commissions in exchange for upfront cash payments to unaffiliated entities. The cost of these arrangements, or the difference between the purchase price and the foregone future commissions for years sold, is recorded as a Loss on Sale in the period in which the policies are sold. During the year ended December 31, 2024, we only used this arrangement for one of our Term Life Insurance products as described further in “—Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates—Liabilities Related to Sale of Commissions Receivable” and in Note 11 to our consolidated financial statements. We impute interest on the unamortized portion of the liability for the sale of commissions receivable using the effective interest method, which is based on forecasted payments expected to be made over the term of the agreements.

Interest Income

Interest income consists of income earned on our short-term investments included in cash and cash equivalents and marketable securities.

Other Income, net

Other Income, net consists of income from subleasing office space along with income from credit card rewards.

Income Tax Expense

Provision for income taxes consists of federal and state income taxes in the United States and income taxes in certain foreign jurisdictions, deferred income taxes reflecting the net tax effects of

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temporary differences between the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities for financial reporting purposes and the amounts used for income tax purposes, and the realization of net operating loss carryforwards.

We account for uncertain tax positions in accordance with Accounting Standards Codification, or ASC, 740-10, Accounting for Uncertainty in Income Taxes. We recognize the tax effects of an uncertain tax position only if it is more likely than not to be sustained based solely on its technical merits as of the reporting date and only in an amount more likely than not to be sustained upon review by the tax authorities. Interest and penalties related to uncertain tax positions are classified in the consolidated financial statements as income tax expense.

Results of Operations

The following tables set forth our results of operations for the periods presented in dollars and as a percentage of our revenue:

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Comparison of the Years Ended December 31, 2023 and 2024

Revenue

Revenue increased by $95.2 million, or 60%, for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. The increase was primarily driven by a 77% increase in activated policies across both Term Life Insurance and Other Products. Term Life Insurance revenue grew 39% whereas Other Products revenue grew 313%. ARPU decreased by 10% over the same period, primarily driven by the growth of Other Products.

Costs and Expenses:

Sales and Marketing

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Sales and marketing expenses increased by $41.1 million, or 38%, for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. This increase was primarily driven by a $37.4 million increase in agent payments and advertising spend, as we continued to scale both our direct to consumer and third-party channels by driving lead growth through direct marketing and brand awareness campaigns and compensating agents for volume growth. The second key driver was a $1.7 million increase in personnel-related expenses as we increased headcount to support growth. As a percentage of revenue, sales and marketing expenses were 58% in the year ended December 31, 2024, decreasing from 67% in the year ended December 31, 2023. The decrease in sales and marketing expenses as a percentage of revenue was primarily driven by improved efficiency in lead generation and policy conversion.

General and Administrative

General and administrative expenses increased by $1.2 million, or 6%, for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. This increase was primarily attributable to an increase of $1.7 million in professional and outside services costs, $0.6 million in personnel-related compensation expenses due to increased headcount, and $0.6 million in payment processing and other general and administrative costs. These increases were in part offset by the reversal of a prior accrual of a $2.0 million loss contingency associated with a cyber incident.

Technology (Exclusive of Amortization)

Technology expenses increased by $0.8 million, or 4%, for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. The increase was primarily attributable to a $0.8 million increase in software and web services costs, driven in part by investments in cybersecurity, and a $0.6 million increase in professional and outside services costs to support both the maintenance and expansion of our product suite and technology infrastructure. These increases were in part offset by a $1.0 million reduction in personnel-related expenses.

Cost of Revenue

Cost of revenue expenses increased by $0.6 million, or 11%, for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. The increase was primarily attributable to a $0.6 million increase in underwriting costs driven by growth in application and activated policy volume.

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Depreciation and Amortization

Depreciation and amortization expenses decreased by $0.3 million, or 5%, for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. The decrease was primarily driven by acquired intangible assets that were fully amortized during the year ended December 31, 2023.

Other Income (Expense):

Interest Expense

Interest expense decreased by $0.1 million, or 18%, for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. The decrease was driven by a reduction in previous liabilities related to the sale of commissions receivable, partially offset by an increase in liabilities related to the sale of commissions receivable in December 2024.

Interest Income

Interest income decreased by $0.2 million, or 3%, for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. The decrease was primarily attributable to a lower average short-term investment and cash equivalents balance.

Income Tax Expense

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Income tax expense increased by $4.5 million, or 771%, for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. The increase was primarily driven by changes to the valuation allowance as a result of increases to deferred tax liabilities associated with revenue recognition.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Since our inception, we have financed our operations primarily through net proceeds from the issuance of our redeemable convertible preferred stock and commissions received from the sale of our products. As of December 31, 2024, our principal sources of liquidity were cash, cash equivalents, and investments of $138.4 million and working capital of $107.2 million. Cash and cash equivalents are comprised of cash held in demand deposit accounts and short-term, highly liquid investments with original maturities of three months or less. Marketable securities are comprised primarily of commercial paper and investment grade U.S. and non-U.S.-issued corporate debt securities. Our principal use of cash has been to fund our operations and invest in technology to support our growth.

We have generated significant losses from operations and negative cash flows from operating activities in the past as reflected in our accumulated deficit of $173.7 million as of December 31, 2024. Our future cash flows from operating activities may fluctuate as a result of investments we continue to make across our organization. As a result, we may require additional capital resources to execute strategic initiatives to grow our business.

We believe that our existing cash and cash equivalents will be sufficient to meet our working capital requirements for at least the next twelve months. However, our liquidity assumptions may prove to be incorrect, and we could utilize our available financial resources sooner than we currently expect. Our future capital requirements and the adequacy of available funds will depend on many factors, including our growth rate, accuracy of persistency estimates, expansion of sales and marketing activities, expansion of carrier and agency relationships, investments in technology enhancements, continued market adoption of our platform and services, and timing and amount of sales of commissions receivable. In addition, we may enter into agreements to acquire or invest in complementary businesses, products, teams, and technologies, including intellectual property rights, which could increase our cash requirements. As a result of these and other factors, we may be required to seek additional financing sooner than we currently anticipate. However, we may not be able to secure additional financing to meet our operating requirements or growth strategies on acceptable terms, or at all.

In particular, recent volatility in the global financial markets, including due to heightened inflation, rising interest rates, tariffs, and other macroeconomic conditions, geopolitical events, such as the ongoing conflicts between Russia and Ukraine and in the Middle East, and disruptions in access to bank deposits or lending commitments due to bank failures could reduce our ability to access capital and negatively affect our liquidity in the future. If we raise additional funds by issuing equity or equity-linked securities, the ownership of our existing stockholders will be diluted. If we raise additional financing by the incurrence of indebtedness, we will be subject to increased fixed payment obligations and could also be subject to restrictive covenants, such as limitations on our ability to incur additional debt, and other operating restrictions that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business. If we are unable to obtain needed additional funds, we will have to reduce our operating costs, which would impair our growth prospects and could otherwise negatively impact our business.

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The following table sets forth certain cash flow information for the periods presented:

Cash Flows Used In Operating Activities

For the year ended December 31, 2024, net cash used in operating activities was $10.9 million. This was driven primarily by net income of $48.8 million, non-cash expenses of $5.4 million related to depreciation and amortization, $3.9 million related to deferred taxes, and $3.2 million related to stock-based compensation, in addition to non-cash income of $3.1 million related to the amortization of discounts and premiums of investments. In addition, during the year ended December 31, 2024, significant changes in our operating assets and liabilities resulted from the following:

For the year ended December 31, 2023, cash used in operating activities was $37.1 million. This was driven primarily by net income of $1.7 million, non-cash expenses of $5.7 million related to depreciation and amortization, an increase in commissions receivable of $29.1 million relating to an increase in volume of activated policies sold in the year ended December 31, 2023, $3.6 million related to stock-based compensation, and non-cash income of $3.6 million related to the amortization of discounts and premiums of investments.

Cash Flows Used In Investing Activities

Our primary investing activities during the periods presented included purchases, sales and maturities of short-term and long-term investments.

For the year ended December 31, 2024, net cash used in investing activities was $0.9 million. This was primarily due to purchases of investments of $154.7 million offset by proceeds from maturity and sale of investments of $158.4 million.

For the year ended December 31, 2023, net cash used in investing activities was $9.2 million. This was primarily due to purchases of investments of $154.2 million offset by proceeds from maturity and sale of investments of $149.9 million.

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Cash Flows Provided By / (Used In) Financing Activities

Our financing activities during the periods presented consisted primarily of proceeds or repayments related to liabilities related to sale of commissions receivable.

For the year ended December 31, 2024, cash provided by financing activities was $21.9 million, which primarily consisted of proceeds from the sale of commissions receivable of $23.6 million, offset by repayments of the liabilities related to the sale of commissions receivable of $1.9 million.

For the year ended December 31, 2023, cash used in financing activities was $(1.6) million, which primarily consisted of repayments of the liabilities related to the sale of commissions receivable.

Contractual Obligations and Commitments

Our operating lease commitments primarily include corporate offices. As of December 31, 2024, we had fixed lease payment obligations of $2.9 million, with $0.9 million to be paid within 12 months and the remainder thereafter. For additional discussion on our operating leases, see Note 10 to our audited consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus.

Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk

We are exposed to market risks in the ordinary course of our business. Market risk represents the risk of loss that may impact our financial position due to adverse changes in financial market prices and rates. Our market risk exposure is primarily the result of fluctuations in interest rates and foreign currency exchange rates.

Interest Rate Risk

We did not have any long-term borrowings as of December 31, 2024.

We invest our excess cash primarily in commercial paper and money market accounts. Our current investment strategy seeks first to preserve principal, second to provide liquidity for our operating and capital needs and third to maximize yield without putting our principal at risk.

Our investments are exposed to market risk due to the fluctuation of prevailing interest rates that may reduce the yield on our investments or their fair value. We do not believe an immediate 10% increase in interest rates would have a material effect on the fair market value of our portfolio, and therefore we do not expect our results of operations or cash flows to be materially affected to any degree by a sudden change in market interest rates.

Foreign Currency Exchange Risk

The functional currencies of our foreign subsidiaries are the respective local currencies. Substantially all of our sales are denominated in U.S. dollars, and therefore our revenue is not currently subject to any significant foreign currency risk. Our operating expenses are denominated in the currencies of the countries in which our operations are located, which are primarily in the United States, Singapore and India. Our consolidated results of operations and cash flows are, therefore, subject to fluctuations due to changes in foreign currency exchange rates and may be adversely affected in the future due to changes in foreign currency exchange rates. To date, we have not entered into any hedging arrangements with respect to foreign currency risk or other derivative financial instruments. We do not believe a hypothetical 10% increase or decrease in the relative value of the U.S. dollar to other currencies would have a material effect on our operating results.

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Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

Management’s discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations is based on our consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with GAAP. The preparation of these consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenue, costs, and expenses and related disclosures. Our estimates are based on our historical experience and on various other factors that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying value of assets and liabilities and the amount of revenue and expenses that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions, and any such differences may be material. We believe that of our significant accounting policies, which are described in Note 2 to our consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus, the following accounting policies involve a greater degree of judgment and complexity. Accordingly, these are the policies we believe are the most critical to aid in fully understanding and evaluating our consolidated financial condition, results of operations, and cash flows.

Revenue Recognition

Revenue is recognized when control of the promised goods or services is transferred to the customer, in the amount that reflects the consideration we expect to receive in exchange for those goods or services.

Our revenue comes in the form of commissions paid to us by insurance carriers for the provision of placement and TPA services. We recognize revenue when a customer obtains control of promised goods or services and recognizes an amount that reflects the consideration that an entity expects to receive in exchange for those goods or services. We apply the following five step model in order to determine this amount: (i) identification of the contract with a customer; (ii) identification of the performance obligations in the contract, including whether they are distinct in the context of the contract; (iii) measurement of the transaction price, including the constraint on variable consideration; (iv) allocation of the transaction price to the performance obligations; and (v) recognition of revenue when (or as) we satisfy each performance obligation.

Our primary customers are the insurance carriers that it contracts with to provide placement and/or TPA services through direct and indirect sales channels, related to consumers and partnerships with insurance agencies, respectively. We earn commissions for first year and renewal policies from the insurance carriers for both placement and TPA services. The contracts with the insurance carriers are non-exclusive and can typically be terminated unilaterally by either party. We review individual contracts to determine our legal and enforceable rights to renewal commissions upon contract termination when determining variable consideration.

We review each contract with customers to determine what promises we must deliver and which of these promises are capable of being distinct and are distinct in the context of the contract. The delivery of new policyholders to the insurance carriers is the only material promise specified within the contracts. After a policy is sold, we have no material additional or recurring obligations to the policyholder or the insurance carrier.

Our contracts do not include downstream policyholder activities such as claims support or payment collection services. While the primary promise is the sale of policies, some contracts include the promise to provide TPA services to policyholders on behalf of the insurance carrier such as responding to policyholder inquiries regarding coverage or providing proof of insurance. We have reviewed and do not have any material ongoing costs for the provision of insurance placement or TPA services. As a result, for a given policy, our performance obligation to insurance carriers is met upon the issuance and activation of an insurance policy.

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The transaction price is the amount of consideration we expect to be entitled to in exchange for transferring promised goods or services to a customer. The transaction price is identified as the first year commission due upon the initial sale of a policy as well as an estimate of renewal commissions. The estimates of renewal commissions are considered variable consideration and require significant judgment including determining the number of periods in which a renewal will occur and the value of those renewal commissions to be received if renewed.

For renewal commissions, we utilize the expected value approach. This approach is based on persistency to estimate renewal commissions at the time of policy activations considering historical data and performance, and we recognize adjustments in revenue for differences in actual commissions received versus persistency estimates. Our persistency estimates incorporate a combination of historical lapse and performance of the placed policy, available insurance carrier experience data, historical payment data by distribution channel, and insurance carrier to estimate forecasted renewal consideration and constrain revenue recognized to the extent that it is probable that a significant reversal in the amount of cumulative revenue recognized will not occur. The uncertainty associated with the variable consideration related to each periodic policy renewal is subsequently resolved when the policy renews, and adjustments in variable consideration are recognized in the period incurred.

We recognize all commissions expected to be received over the expected life of the insurance policy at the policy effective date which is when it has completed its performance obligation for both placement and TPA services. At the policy effective date, we apply its management estimate of policyholder persistency; the attrition rate of policy holders who cease to maintain their insurance policy, due to cancellation or mortality, and accrues a churn reserve based on industry data and our experience in the industry and with different carriers.

We continuously evaluate the assumptions and inputs into its calculation of renewal commissions. As a result of these continuous evaluations, we recognize adjustments for revenue from prior periods when the cash collections are different from the estimated constrained renewal commissions. These adjustments are a result of a change in estimate of expected cash collections when actual cash collections differ from the estimated constrained renewal commissions for the revenue recognized at the time of approval. These adjustments can be positive or negative and are recognized using actual experience from policy renewals.

Commissions Receivable

The estimated variable consideration related to performance obligations that have been satisfied but for which payment is not yet due is classified as commissions receivable. Commissions receivable are contract assets and are reclassified as accounts receivable when the rights to payment become unconditional (upon renewal of the underlying policy). Commissions receivable represent the variable consideration for policies that have not renewed yet and therefore are subject to the same assumptions, judgments, and estimates used when recognizing revenue as noted above.

Liabilities Related to Sale of Commissions Receivable

From time to time, we enter into agreements to sell a portion of our commissions receivable. We account for the sale of future rights to commissions from insurance carriers as debt, amortized under the effective interest method. We have elected to use the prospective method in the calculation of the effective interest rate and will update this calculation quarterly when there are changes in the projected cash flows. The amortization of the liabilities is based on our current estimates of future commission payments, which represents the variable consideration for policies that have not renewed yet and therefore are subject to the same assumptions, judgments and estimates used when recognizing revenue as noted above.

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Stock-Based Compensation

We measure and recognize our stock-based compensation expense for stock options based on the estimated fair value of the award. We use the Black-Scholes-Merton pricing model to determine the grant date fair value of stock options. For awards with service conditions only, stock-based compensation expense is recognized on a straight-line basis over the requisite service period of the awards, which is generally the vesting period. For awards with both a time and liquidity event condition, stock-based compensation expense is recognized using the accelerated-attribution method over the estimated vesting period of the awards if and when we conclude that it is probable that the liquidity event condition will be achieved. We reassess the probability of vesting at each reporting period for awards with liquidity event conditions and adjust compensation expense based on its probability assessment. We account for forfeitures as they occur.

We measure and recognize our stock-based compensation expense for RSUs based on the estimated fair value of the underlying common stock on the date of grant. Our RSUs vest upon the satisfaction of both a time and liquidity event condition. We recognize compensation expense for awards with both a time and liquidity event condition on a straight-line basis over the requisite service period for each separately vesting portion of the award and, for awards with liquidity event conditions, when we conclude it is probable that the liquidity event condition will be achieved. We reassess the probability of vesting at each balance sheet date and adjust compensation expense based on the probability assessment.

We continue to use judgment in evaluating the expected volatility and expected term utilized in our stock-based compensation expense calculation on a prospective basis. As we continue to accumulate additional data related to our common stock, we may refine our estimates of expected volatility and expected term, which could materially impact our future stock-based compensation expense.

As of      , 2025, total unrecognized stock-based compensation cost related to unvested RSUs was $    million, which is expected to be recognized over a weighted-average period of     years. Following the completion of this offering, stock-based compensation expense related to our RSUs will result in increases in our expenses in future periods, in particular the quarter in which this offering is completed for RSUs for which the service-based vesting condition will be fully or partially satisfied and for which the liquidity event condition will be satisfied upon the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part.

After the closing of this offering, based on RSUs outstanding as of     , 2025, we expect that approximately     ,     , and     RSUs will satisfy their service-based vesting conditions by each of      ,      , and     , respectively, assuming no forfeitures. We may delay the settlement of certain of these vested RSUs until after the expiration of lock-up agreements and market stand-off provisions described elsewhere in this prospectus.

Common Stock Valuations

Since June 2018, we have obtained periodic valuation analyses prepared by independent third-party valuation firms to assist us with the determination of the fair value of our common stock. The valuation firms utilized approaches and methodologies consistent with the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants Practice Aid, Valuation of Privately-Held-Company Equity Securities Issued as Compensation and information provided by our management, including historical and projected financial statements, prospects and risks, our performance, various corporate documents, capitalization, and economic and financial market conditions. The third-party valuation firms also utilized other economic, industry, and market information obtained from other resources considered

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reliable. The valuation analyses were reviewed by management and the board of directors in conjunction with stock-based compensation grants. Management and our board of directors have considered these valuation analyses and other qualitative and quantitative factors to determine the best estimate of the fair value of our common stock at each stock option, RSU, or warrant grant date. These factors included:

The valuation analyses employed market and income approaches to estimate our enterprise value and allocated our enterprise value among our various equity classes utilizing option pricing, or OPM, and probability-weighted expected return, or PWERM, methods. The valuation analyses were based on contemporaneous information as of each respective valuation date.

Under the income approach, specifically the discounted cash flow, or DCF method, forecast cash flows are discounted to the present value at a risk-adjusted discount rate. The valuation analyses determine discrete free cash flows over several years based on forecast financial information provided by our management and a terminal value for the residual period beyond the discrete forecast, which are discounted at our estimated weighted average cost of capital to estimate our enterprise value.

Under the market approach, the guideline public company method and subject company transaction method were considered. The guideline public company method involves selecting publicly traded companies with similar financial and operating characteristics as us and calculating valuation multiples based on the guideline public company’s financial information and market data. Based on the observed valuation multiples, an appropriate multiple was selected to apply to our financial statistics. The same set of guideline public companies was utilized for both the common stock valuation and the expected volatility estimate for the valuation of the stock-based compensation awards. The subject company transaction method involves the utilization of a company’s own relevant stock transactions, such as a preferred stock issuance, to calculate the enterprise value based on the transaction price of the stock.

After determining an estimate of the fair value of the enterprise, the valuation analyses allocated the enterprise value among the equity classes outstanding at each valuation date utilizing the OPM, specifically the Black-Scholes-Merton option pricing model. The OPM requires inputs for the exercise

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price, term, expected volatility, and risk-free rate. The exercise prices were calculated based on the enterprise values at which the equity classes either begin or stop participating in the next incremental enterprise value, which were determined based on the liquidation preferences and conversion rights of each equity class. The term was the estimated time to a liquidity event, such as a sale or merger or IPO, which was determined based on information provided by our management and outside research. The expected volatility for the enterprise was estimated based on a historical analysis of publicly traded companies with similar financial and operating characteristics as us and consideration of the relative differences between us and the selected comparable companies, such as stage of development, earning margins, leverage, and other risk factors. The risk-free rates were based on U.S. treasury securities with terms to maturity consistent with the estimated time to a liquidity event.

The PWERM was utilized starting on May 31, 2024, which was determined to be appropriate given the expectation of a liquidity event in the near-term (approximately zero to two years) and a more discrete distribution of likely liquidity events. Under the PWERM, the fair value of common stock is estimated based on likely liquidity event scenarios. For each identified liquidity scenario, it is necessary to estimate the timing to a liquidity event, future enterprise value, probability of occurrence, and risk-adjusted discount rate. The valuation analyses estimated the future enterprise values utilizing the guideline public company method and information provided by our management. The timing to each liquidity event and the probability of occurrence were estimated based on information provided by our management and outside research. The risk-adjusted discount rates were estimated based on market data and outside research of required rates of return for companies at a similar stage of development and risk factors. The future enterprise values under each scenario were allocated to the various equity classes based on the liquidation preferences and conversion rights of each equity class. The future values for each equity class under each scenario were discounted to a present value at the selected risk-adjusted discount rate. The present values under each scenario were probability-weighted to determine the value of common stock before applicable discounts.

After obtaining the value allocated to the common stock under either the OPM or PWERM, a discount was considered to adjust for the fact that a share of common stock is a minority, non-marketable interest. The discounts are determined based on qualitative and quantitative analyses.

We derived the estimated fair value per share as of each grant date by applying a linear proration of fair values between the valuation performed immediately prior to each set of grants and the valuation performed after each set of grants.

As of     , total unrecognized compensation expense, adjusted for estimated forfeitures, related to non-vested awards was $    million, which is expected to be recognized over the next     years.

Based upon an estimated offering price of $    per share, which is the midpoint of the offering price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, the options and warrants would have an intrinsic value of approximately $    million.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

See Note 2 to our consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus for a description of recently adopted accounting pronouncements and recently issued accounting pronouncements not yet adopted.

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BUSINESS

Company Overview

Our Mission

Our mission is to protect families by democratizing access to life insurance and empowering agents at scale.

To achieve this mission, we built Ethos, a three-sided technology platform that transforms the buying, selling, and risk management experience of life insurance for consumers, agents, and carriers alike.

The Problem with the Legacy Life Insurance Process

Life insurance is a pillar of financial security. It provides individuals and their families peace of mind and financial protection against unforeseen events.

While technology has transformed almost every important personal and financial experience, from education to buying a home, banking, or investing, the experience of purchasing, selling, and administering life insurance has not meaningfully improved in several decades:

As a result, there is a significant need for a new approach to life insurance in the United States. In 2024, 42% of American adults recognized they needed life insurance coverage but did not purchase it due to multiple reasons, notably the complexity of the products, perceived cost, and other financial priorities, according to the Life Insurance Marketing and Research Association, or LIMRA, a leading research organization for insurance and financial services companies.

Value Proposition to Consumers, Agents, and Carriers

Through our three-sided technology platform, we serve a growing ecosystem of consumers, agents, and carriers, each of which benefits from the scale, ease-of-use, and efficiency of our platform. This creates strong network effects that drive our continued growth.

Since inception, we have activated approximately   policies, and as of December 31, 2024, we had over 10,000 active selling agents and six active carriers on our platform.

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Our Platform

Our technology platform is fully digital and vertically integrated. We simplify the insurance value chain from distribution to underwriting, activation, payments, and administration. Combining key elements of the insurance sales and administrative process into a singular platform enables us to build insurance products quickly, dynamically adjust underwriting and pricing, and rapidly iterate to deliver a delightful consumer and agent experience.

Our platform makes the application process faster and more accessible for consumers and agents while reducing errors, including by validating disclosures against third-party data in real-time. Our proprietary underwriting engine leverages predictive and real-time data acquired with the consent of the applicant to create a bespoke information graph that allows us to instantly assess risk and deliver quick, competitively priced policies with high approval rates. Once issued, our cloud-native policy administration system provides consumers with seamless servicing and billing. The unified, end-to-end nature of our platform enables us to collect and analyze granular data across the entire consumer and agent journey. We then identify patterns across cohorts to continuously optimize our underwriting and improve conversion and platform usability.

Our technology platform is extensible, demonstrated by our ability to launch and scale new life insurance and estate planning products. This has enabled us to expand our offerings from just one product in 2019 to ten as of December 31, 2024. We have launched multiple Term Life Insurance and Whole Life Insurance products, Indexed Universal Life Insurance and Accidental Death Insurance, as well as Wills & Estate Planning. As a result, we have achieved significant scale with broad demographic and geographic distribution. We have activated approximately      policies, and these consumers come from a wide range of educational backgrounds, income levels, and ages, consistent with our mission of democratizing access to life insurance. Our technology platform continuously improves as we scale and collect data, which further refines underwriting accuracy, pricing efficiency, and our platform engagement strategy to create durable network effects.

Our Business Model

Our business model is capital and asset light and highly scalable. In contrast to a traditional carrier model, we do not assume balance sheet risk for the policies sold on our platform. We power the technology, distribution, digital underwriting, and consumer experience while our insurance carriers assume the underlying insurance risk of the policies.

We have achieved significant scale and rapid growth, and have expanded our margins since inception. The number of activated policies on our platform increased by 77% from 72,768 in the year ended December 31, 2023 to 128,497 in the year ended December 31, 2024. Our revenue for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2024 was $160 million and $255 million, respectively, representing an increase of 60%. Over the same period, we also increased our gross profit margin from 96% to 97%, respectively, and Contribution Margin from 32% to 41%, respectively. In the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2024, our net income margin was 1% and 19%, and our Adjusted EBITDA Margin increased from 4% to 23%. For more information about Contribution Margin and Adjusted EBITDA Margin, including the limitations of such measures and a reconciliation of each metric to its most directly comparable financial measure under GAAP, see the section titled “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations–Key Business Metrics and Non-GAAP Financial Measures.”

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The Ethos Platform

We operate a vertically integrated platform transforming how life insurance is bought and sold through end-to-end distribution, underwriting, and policy administration. Our platform is natively built on a unified data infrastructure and our technology allows for continuous platform improvement, creating network effects as we scale.

Vertically Integrated

Our vertical integration yields comprehensive data and insights across the value chain, enabling us to deliver superior value to consumers, agents, and carriers, while continuously improving our platform. By integrating multiple carriers on our unified platform, we are also able to offer a wider array of products tailored to various consumer profiles, creating a significant competitive advantage that compounds over time and helps us achieve our mission of democratizing access to life insurance.

Distribution

We believe we have transformed distribution for constituents in the life insurance value chain, simplifying and improving the policy experience for consumers, agents, and carriers alike.

We serve consumers by unifying the direct-to-consumer, or DTC, and third-party distribution channels on a single digital platform. This integrated model creates powerful flywheel effects: consumer marketing drives brand visibility and inbound interest from agents leading to higher sales and data captured from both channels that collectively improve our platform.

Our data engine and machine learning models identify patterns from historical consumer cohorts and use that data to predict purchase behavior, consumer lifetime values, and underwriting outcomes early in the funnel, improving our targeting while offering consumers an experience that is personalized to their needs.

Our platform also integrates with third-party channels such as fintech companies via application programming interfaces, or APIs, allowing these companies to quote, process, and activate policies within their own platform. This further expands our reach and reinforces our distribution.